Mashing

From Brewing Forward

Mashing is the most important process in wort production. During this step, the milled grain is mixed with hot water. Natural malt enzymes break down the grain components, creating a fermentable wort. All of the substances that go into solution are referred to as extract, which include sugars, minerals, and proteins. The mashing process offers various possibilities for the brewer to influence the character of the final beer.[1][2]

Starting with mash-in and continuing throughout the entire brewing process, it is important to control both the temperature and the pH of the wort.[1] Mash duration is normally 1–2 hours. A longer mash should be avoided because oxidation and excessive protein degradation can decrease the beer quality.[1][3] During this time, the mash may be held at one temperature (single infusion mashing) or more than one temperature (step mashing). It is beneficial to conduct mashing operations as oxygen-free as possible.[1][4][3][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]

Mashing Process Overview:

  1. Prepare the water: Heat, adjust mineral content, deoxygenate, etc.; see Water.
  2. Mash-in: Mix the milled grains and water together.
  3. Wait: Allow time for the enzymes to work.

Mashing is followed by a lautering step where the wort is separated from the spent grains. Optionally, the spent grain can then be sparged (rinsed with additional water) to increase extract.

Transformations During Mashing[edit]

Chemical and physical changes take place while mashing, transforming the starchy malt into a nutrient-rich liquid that yeast can ferment into beer. Here's an overview of what's occurring:

Starch degradation[edit]

A necessary step in the production of beer is the degradation of starch into fermentable sugars by enzymes. These sugars are what the yeast will convert into alcohol. Starch degradation occurs in three stages (see Starch for more detailed information):[1]

  1. Gelatinization - The starch granules hydrate, so that they are more susceptible to enzymatic degradation.
  2. Liquefaction - Viscosity of the gelatinized starch is rapidly reduced by α-amylase enzymes.
  3. Saccharification - Enzymes α-amylase, β-amylase, and limit dextrinase degrade the starch to form glucose, maltose, maltotriose, and dextrins.

Full conversion of starch to sugars is desirable since it makes the best use of the malt and is necessary to obtain clear beer.[1][13]

Other processes[edit]

Besides starch degradation, there are many other processes occurring during the mash, and the impact of these changes are extremely complex. Here's a simplified overview of some important compounds being extracted:

Strike water[edit]

The water used for mash-in is called strike water. The details of water preparation are discussed separately. See Water. Here is a summary:

Procedure:

  1. Use the right volume of water, based on the recipe and brewing system.
    If sparging, the water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.[1][14]
  2. Use the right temperature of water, based on the desired mash temperature and the amount of grain.[1]

Best practices:

  • Adjust the calcium to the ideal range.
  • Adjust the flavor ions (especially chloride and sulfate) based on the recipe.
  • Adjust acid/base as needed for target mash pH.
  • Remove dissolved oxygen.
  • Remove chlorine or chloramine, if applicable.
Mash thickness L/kg gal/lb qt/lb
Thin 3.5 0.42 1.7
Normal 2.7 0.32 1.3
Thick 1.5 0.18 0.73

Note:
A mash can be described as "thick" or "thin"; a thin mash has more water relative to the amount of grain. Mash thickness can have some influence on mashing processes, such as protein degradation and starch degradation. However, these effects are negligible unless the mash is very thick.[1][14][4][3][15][16][17][18] Therefore, small-scale brewers do not need to adjust mash thickness to influence the final beer.[19]

Mashing-In[edit]

Mash-in, also called dough-in, is the mixing of the water and milled grist. Mash-in must be performed so that the water and grist are thoroughly mixed together without any clumping. Clumps (i.e. "dough balls") may form by the agglutination of fine particles, and these are very difficult to dissolve and can ultimately lead to undegraded starch in the wort, low efficiency, and/or lower attenuation.[1][4][3]

Modern mash-in procedure:
The grist is placed in the mash vessel, which is then slowly filled from below with deaerated strike water; this is called underletting.[1][4][9][3] This method greatly reduces the amount of oxygen getting into the mash, helping to avoid oxidation. Ideally you would also flush the mashing vessel with inert gas (such as CO2 or N2) before adding the water.[5][20][9] Anecdotally, underletting also helps to avoid dough balls.[21][22][23][24]

Traditional mash-in procedure:
The grist is added to the strike water while stirring with a mash paddle. The major drawback to this method is that it causes a lot of oxygen to enter the mash along with the inflowing grist (increasing oxidation).[1][25][3] Also, dough balls may form if the grist is added too quickly, which then need to be broken up by stirring (further increasing oxidation).[4] Adding water to grist from above will add even more oxygen. The traditional mash-in method is fine for beginners or any brewers willing to accept oxidizing the wort.

Heat loss prevention[edit]

During mashing, excessive heat loss should be avoided since a big temperature drop will extend the amount of time needed to heat the wort to a boil, and potentially could negatively affect enzyme activity. However, a small drop in temperature during the mash will not cause any problems.[26] The easiest way to maintain temperature is to insulate the mash vessel. Home brewers often use blankets, towels, sleeping bags, or Reflectix-type insulation (Amazon) for insulation. Always keep flammable materials away from fire. Using a beverage cooler as a mash vessel is also common among home brewers, and it insulates the mash quite well by design. Other creative options exist. For example, brewers with a small mash vessel may put it in a pre-heated oven (turned off) for the duration of the mash. The ultimate way to control mash temperature is to use a heated recirculating system (HERMS or RIMS), although it does increase risk of oxidation, and it is more complicated and expensive. These types of advanced systems are probably overkill for single-infusion mashing. Commercial-scale brewers generally don't need to worry about excessive heat loss since the larger volume of wort has a larger thermal mass and less surface area for losing heat (relative to the volume).

We do NOT recommend directly heating the mash to compensate for heat loss, since it can cause problems such as scorching the wort or cause excessive and/or uneven heating (creating areas in the mash that are too hot).[3]

Single-infusion mashing[edit]

Single-infusion mash schedule:
  1. 149°F (65°C) for 60 minutes

The simplest method is to hold the mash at one temperature that serves as a compromise between starch gelatinization and the optimal temperature ranges of certain starch-degrading enzymes (β-amylase and limit dextrinase).[27][28] This is referred to as a "single-infusion" or "isothermal" mashing. A temperature of 144°F (62°C) is the minimum recommended for a single-infusion mash, and this will produce the most fermentable wort.[1][14] Mashing should generally be in the range of 144–151°F (62–66°C), since it yields the maximum extract for single-infusion.[4][3] More specifically, 149°F (65°C) is accepted as the ideal temperature for a 60-minute single-infusion mash.[2][25][29][30][27][13][31][32][33][18][34] Around 155°F (68°C) or higher, fermentability begins to decrease sharply and fatty acid levels may be negatively affected.[27][18] The main reason to decrease wort fermentability is to brew a low-alcohol beer.[30] Keep in mind that these temperatures are just guidelines — extract and fermentability also depend on the characteristics of the malt.

Step mashing[edit]

An advanced method of mashing is to move the mash among multiple temperatures in order to gain benefits that occur from mashing in particular temperature ranges.[1] This method is called a "step mash", and the periods where the temperature is held stable are called "rests". Typically, the mash starts at the lowest temperature rest, and after some period of time it is heated in order to reach the higher rest, repeating as necessary for any other desired rests. Step mashing can produce wort with good fermentability resulting from a low temperature rest, as well as good body, foam, and efficiency from a higher rest, a combination of attributes beyond that which can be achieved by a single-infusion mash.[35] The most common mashing process in Germany is known as the Hoch-Kurz (literally "high-short").[14][6] It eliminates the lower rests used in traditional mash schedules, and total time is around an hour. The positive effects from Hoch-Kurz mashing are evident in enhanced foam formation and stability, a more pleasant mouthfeel, less haze, lighter color, improved flavor, and improved flavor stability.[6][15][36][3] One caveat is that modern (highly-modified) malt is required for this process. Other types of step mashing can sometimes be used to create specialty beers such as a cereal mash, decoction mash, a maltase mash, or a turbid mash.

Step mashing schedule[edit]

Before mashing, you need a plan for the rest temperatures and durations, i.e. a "mash schedule". Generally, all rests below 142°F (61°C), such as a "protein rest" at 113–131°F (45–55°C), should be avoided due to the increased time and energy required, worse foam, and decreased flavor stability.[1][15][20][37][19] The one exception to this is for mashing poorly-modified malt, which may benefit from such a rest to help degrade protein and β-glucans (see Malt).[13][19] The following rests are potentially useful for modern malts:[1][6][38]

  • Saccharification rest at 142–149°F (61–65°C) - The main purpose of this rest is promoting starch degradation (by β-amylase and limit dextrinase) in order to produce wort with excellent fermentability. Generally, around 30 minutes is adequate to obtain the increased fermentability and extraction benefits from the saccharification rest, although a longer rest may sometimes be useful depending on the malt and the crush.[14][39][13]
  • Glycoprotein rest at 158–162°F (70–72°C) - The main purpose of this rest is promoting extraction of glycoproteins, which enhance foam, mouthfeel, and flavor stability.[6][36] Some additional starch is extracted, which is degraded by α-amylase.[35][16]
  • Mash-out at 167–172°F (75–78°C) - The main purpose of this rest is decreasing the viscosity of the liquid, allowing lautering to proceed more rapidly.[40] Additional starch may be gelatinized and degraded during this step as well.[1] Also, more protein aggregation occurs.[4] Contrary to popular belief, this step does not "deactivate the enzymes". Temperature is maintained low enough that α-amylase remains active and it continues to degrade any additional starch that becomes gelatinized.[18] Other enzymes are active as well, such as peroxidases.
Step mash schedule
(Brewing Forward Hoch-Kurz):
  1. 147°F (64°C) for 25 minutes
  2. 162°F (72°C) for 30 minutes

We recommend to mash at 147°F (64°C) for 25 minutes followed by 162°F (72°C) for 30 minutes. A mash-out step is omitted because a boost to lautering speed is usually not needed, and therefore the mash-out merely increases the potential for oxidation (KISS). This mash schedule can be adjusted based on your needs. For example, a staggered saccharification rest (e.g. 144°F [62°C] for 15 minutes followed by 149°F [65°C] for 10 minutes) may be helpful to increase attenuation and extraction, especially for malts with a relatively high gelatinization temperature.[3][41][31][42] If you use a RIMS or HERMS, another option is to mash-in at a slightly lower temperature such as 131–140°F (55–60°C) and then immediately begin to heat up to the first rest, which can help improve the starch extraction.[3][17] However, be aware that mashing-in lower than 140°F (60°C) can increase undesirable oxidation of lipids (even with low oxygen brewing).[10]

Step mashing methods (how to heat the mash)[edit]

It is important for the temperature to be uniform throughout the mash, otherwise saccharification time and lautering time may be extended, and efficiency may be reduced.[1] There are two basic ways to heat the mash: multiple infusions, or a recirculating system that heats the wort.

Multiple infusions
A low-tech way to increase mash temperature is to add a controlled amount of boiling water. With this multiple-infusion method, the mash starts out relatively thick since it becomes thinner as water is added for each step. Therefore, the strike water volume typically needs to be lower since more water is added later. In order to ensure that the heat is evenly distributed, the mash should be stirred after adding the water. Also, preventing heat loss is important for accurately hitting the rest temperatures. Software can be used to determine the amount of boiling water required to increase the temperature for each step, such as the "Mash Infusion, Strike Water, and Rest Schedule Calculator" at Brewer's Friend. You need to know your elevation to use the calculator because the temperature of boiling water changes based on elevation. Also be aware that you may need to use slightly more water in order to make up for heat losses.

Recirculating systems
There are several types of mashing systems that use electric pumps to move wort from the bottom of the mash vessel back to the top. There must be a "false bottom" in the vessel to keep the grain suspended above the outflow. Recirculation mixes the wort to ensure that the temperature is fairly even throughout the mash. These systems heat the wort either directly or indirectly while circulating (circulating without heating will cause a significant drop in temperature). Besides controlling mash temperature, another benefit is that these systems produce very clear wort going into the boil.[4] The drawbacks to these systems are the higher equipment cost and system complexity, higher shear force, and an increased risk of a stuck mash (especially with traditional high-oxygen brewing). Although, once they are set up, they can make step mashing quite easy. Depending on the system, the brewer may simply need to enter the desired mash temperature, and the system steadily heats to the target. Systems can also be built to fully automate the step mashing process, which allows very high consistency from one brew to the next.

Some notes about recirculation:
The grain husks form a grain bed in the mashing vessel, allowing wort and sparge liquor to flow through it. This is where fine particles are filtered out, not at the false bottom, which only acts as a support.[25][19] Recirculation thus gives maximum extraction and improved clarity of the wort.[43] Clear wort contains the lowest levels of lipids. This is beneficial because lipids negatively affect foam stability and flavor stability, particularly when oxidized.[7]

Under oxidizing conditions, fine aggregates of protein, small starch granules, cell wall polysaccharides (beta-glucans and arabinoxylans), and lipids can form a gel-like layer (in German: Oberteig or Schmutzdecke) on the surface of the grain bed, which limits flow.[4][40][43] Therefore preventing oxygen in the mash reduces the formation of this gel layer and increases the wort flow rate during recirculation, reducing the likelihood of a stuck mash.[4][44] Wort flow rate can be also be improved by proper milling, proper pH control, and increased calcium ion concentration during mashing.[44] Mashes that include huskless grains such as wheat or rye malt, or oat flakes are especially problematic with regard to a potential stuck mash. Along with measures already mentioned, one way to avoid difficulty is to increase the permeability of the mash bed by adding rice hulls.[45]

Preventing oxidation[edit]

Traditional brewing methods allow a huge amount of oxygen into the wort during mashing, and this oxygen reacts very rapidly with wort components,[20][11][46] a chemical process called oxidation. Oxidation causes many negative effects including loss of fresh grain flavor, and development of off-flavors including harsh bitterness, astringency, and the potential for cardboard flavors that can show up during beer storage. Oxidation during this stage also causes a loss of natural antioxidants, which are important for flavor stability (including preservation of hop aroma). See Oxidation for a detailed discussion of all the negative effects of oxidation and how it occurs.

In order to produce high-quality beer, steps can be taken to avoid oxidation during mashing; these methods are often referred to as low oxygen brewing or LODO. To successfully realize the full array of benefits from minimizing oxidation during mashing, the process should utilize low-oxygen methods at every step in the brewing process starting with raw ingredient selection and ending with storage and dispensing. See low oxygen brewing for an overview of methods to avoid the damaging effects of oxidation.

Mash Oxidation Prevention Guide
Source of oxygen or catalysts Steps needed to avoid oxidation
Water used for mash-in contains dissolved oxygen.[11]
  • Remove the dissolved oxygen using "yeast oxygen scavenging", nitrogen sparging, a membrane system, or other method.[20][47]
Many pockets of air are entrained in the grist after milling, which transfer oxygen to the wort upon mash-in.[11][19]
  • Flush the grist with inert gas before mash-in.[20] This is typically accomplished by adding the grain to the mash vessel and flushing it with CO2 or N2 from below for a few minutes before mash-in.[20]
  • Underlet the water during mash-in, i.e. add the water gently from the bottom of the mash vessel.
Oxygen diffuses into the wort wherever the wort contacts air.[20][9][11]
  • If possible, replace the air in the mash vessel with nitrogen.[20][47][11][48][49] Alternately, a "mash cap" can be used to greatly reduce the amount of wort surface exposed to the air. This is especially important for small-scale brewing, where there is a much greater surface area relative to the volume of wort.[47][19]
  • Minimize the amount of stirring, splashing, and agitation.[20][9][3][11] This includes pumping gently, minimizing the amount of recirculation, and minimizing the number of transfers.[20][9][11] However, a short and gentle stir after mash-in is a fine practice, and might be better than not stirring at all.[48]
  • Limit mashing duration to 1–2 hours.[1][3]
  • Flush tubing, pumps, etc. with inert gas before running wort or brewing water through them.
  • Avoid using a BIAB system for lautering, because it causes a lot of air exposure when the grain bag is removed. Avoid all-in-one systems for the same reason, and they are typically not designed for minimizing agitation/splashing.
The grain contains transition metals, enzymes, and other materials that promote oxidation (catalysts).[20]
  • Use antioxidant additives in the mash, especially tannin additives and sulfite.
  • Mash-in at 144°F (62°C) or higher.[20][3]
  • Control mash pH and acid/base.
  • Circulation is helpful to improve wort clarity, reducing the amount of oxidized lipids carried forward to the boil kettle.
Oxygen diffuses through plastics, into the wort.
  • Avoid plain silicone tubing.

Quality assurance and monitoring[edit]

The progress and status of mash chemistry can be tested to ensure that a high quality wort is being produced.

  • Measure mash pH - Mash pH should be checked to verify that is it at the target value. Proper pH control during mashing is beneficial for optimal activity of various enzymes, improving the extraction of zinc, and other important effects. Furthermore, the mash pH carries forward to the boil and fermentation, where pH control has additional benefits. See Brewing pH. If the pH has not successfully been controlled (i.e. the pH is not at target value), brewers genearlly should NOT try to adjust it during the mash. However, it is recommended to adjust pH going into the boil kettle.
  • Monitor oxidation - Low oxygen brewers may be interested to track the amount oxidation occurring in the mash (traditional brewers don't need to monitor oxidation, because the mash is always very oxidized immediately upon mash-in). Unfortunately, wort oxidation is not something that can easily be measured. Low oxygen bewers can monitor for excessive oxidation simply by looking for changes in color, and tasting the wort to ensure that the fresh grain flavor is still present.[19] Measuring dissolved oxygen levels (with a DO meter) is not particularly useful since any oxygen dissolved in the wort is consumed by rapidly by oxidation reactions. An ORP (Oxidation Reduction Potential) meter is potentially useful for monitoring the redox status of the wort, but it is not commonly used in brewing. The most effective way to quantitatively estimate the amount of oxygen getting into the wort (although not necessarily the amount of oxidation that has occurred) is to add sulfite and monitor how much is lost during the brewing process. Testing sulfite level is best accomplished by a titration method, see sulfite testing.
  • Monitor extract - Brewers may periodically measure wort density or refraction (e.g. using a hydrometer or refractometer) to track the amount of grain components that have been dissolved into the wort (note that this measures extraction of all wort components, not just starch and sugars).[50] The benefits to monitoring extract are unclear, so while it may provide interesting information, this practice is generally not needed when brewers are following good methods (proper mash temperature, mash pH, mash duration, milling, etc).
  • Check for undegraded starch - Starch that hasn't been adequately broken down during mashing can cause haze in beer. Therefore, an iodine test can be used at the end of mashing to help identify whether starch is the source of haze in a hazy beer. When used, it should be conducted again at the end of the boil. Iodine testing is typically not needed on a regular basis.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. Technology Brewing & Malting. 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019.
  2. ↑ a b Holbrook CJ. Brewhouse operations. In: Smart C, ed. The Craft Brewing Handbook. Woodhead Publishing; 2019.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. Abriss der Bierbrauerei. 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. Brewing Science and Practice. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.
  5. ↑ a b Stephenson WH, Biawa JP, Miracle RE, Bamforth CW. Laboratory-scale studies of the impact of oxygen on mashing. J Inst Brew. 2003;109(3):273–283.
  6. ↑ a b c d e Sacher B, Becker T, Narziss L. Some reflections on mashing – Part 1. Brauwelt International. 2016;5:309-311.
  7. ↑ a b De Rouck G, Jaskula-Goiris B, De Causmaecker B, et al. The impact of wort production on the flavour quality and stability of pale lager beer. BrewingScience. 2013;66(1/2):1–11.
  8. ↑ Kunz T, Brandt NO, Seewald T, Methner FJ. Carbohydrates addition during brewing – effects on oxidative processes and formation of specific ageing compounds. BrewingScience. 2015;68(7):78–92.
  9. ↑ a b c d e f Golston AM. The impact of barley lipids on the brewing process and final beer quality: A mini-review. Tech Q Master Brew Assoc Am. 2021;58(1):43–51.
  10. ↑ a b Arts MJTJ, Grun C, De Jong RL, et al. Oxidative degradation of lipids during mashing. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55(17):7010–7014.
  11. ↑ a b c d e f g h Kanauchi M, Bamforth CW. A Challenge in the study of flavour instability. BrewingScience - Monatsschrift Brauwiss. 2018;71(Sept/Oct):82–84.
  12. ↑ Bamforth CW, Muller RE, Walker MD. Oxygen and oxygen radicals in malting and brewing: a review. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 1993;51(3):79–88.
  13. ↑ a b c d Evans E. Mashing. American Society of Brewing Chemists and Master Brewers Association of the Americas; 2021.
  14. ↑ a b c d e Fix G. Principles of Brewing Science. 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.
  15. ↑ a b c De Rouck G, Jaskula B, De Causmaecker B, et al. The influence of very thick and fast mashing conditions on wort composition. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 2013;71(1):1–14.
  16. ↑ a b Kühbeck F, Dickel T, Krottenthaler M, et al. Effects of mashing parameters on mash β-glucan, FAN and soluble extract levels. J Inst Brew. 2005;111(3):316–327.
  17. ↑ a b Iyuke SE, Madigoe EM, Maponya R. The effect of hydroxycinnamic acids and volatile phenols on beer quality. J Inst Brew. 2008;114(4):300–305.
  18. ↑ a b c d Muller R. The effects of mashing temperature and mash thickness on wort carbohydrate composition. J Inst Brew. 1991;97(2):85–92.
  19. ↑ a b c d e f g Kallmeyer M. To mash or not to mash Kurz/Hoch. Drayman's Brewery website. 2016. Accessed online March 2024.
  20. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Muller R. Use of 5,5’-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) as a measure of oxidation during mashing. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 1995;53(2):53–58.
  21. ↑ Underletting for mash-in. Homebrew Talk website. 2018. Accessed 2020.
  22. ↑ Reverse dough-in. Homebrew Talk website. 2015. Accessed 2020.
  23. ↑ Pumping into mashtun from HLT. American Homebrewers Association website. 2018. Accessed 2020.
  24. ↑ Which hot-side low oxygen steps have you implemented? Homebrew Talk website. 2022. Accessed online March 2024.
  25. ↑ a b c Miedl-Appelbee M. Brewhouse technology. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. Handbook of Brewing. 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.
  26. ↑ Vriesekoop F, Rathband A, MacKinlay J, Bryce JH. The evolution of dextrins during the mashing and fermentation of all-malt whisky production. J Inst Brew. 2010;116(3):230–238.
  27. ↑ a b c Evans DE, Fox GP. Comparison of diastatic power enzyme release and persistence during modified Institute of Brewing 65°C and Congress programmed mashes. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 2017;75(4):302–311.
  28. ↑ Fox GP, Staunton M, Agnew E, D'Arcy B. Effect of varying starch properties and mashing conditions on wort sugar profiles. J Inst Brew. 2019;125(4):412–421.
  29. ↑ Fox GP. Starch in brewing applications. In: Sjöö M, Nilsson L, eds. Starch in Food. 2nd ed. Woodhead Publishing; 2017:633–659.
  30. ↑ a b Guerra NP, Torrado-Agrasar A, López-Macías C, et al. Use of Amylolytic Enzymes in Brewing. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:113–126.
  31. ↑ a b Evans DE, Collins H, Eglinton J, Wihelmson A. Assessing the impact of the level of diastatic power enzymes and their thermostability on the hydrolysis of starch during wort production to predict malt fermentability. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 2005;63(4):185–198.
  32. ↑ Evans DE, Li C, Eglinton JK. The properties and genetics of barley malt starch degrading enzymes. In: Zhang G, Li C, eds. Genetics and Improvement of Barley Malt Quality. Springer; 2010:143–189.
  33. ↑ Yu W, Zhai H, Xia G, et al. Starch fine molecular structures as a significant controller of the malting, mashing, and fermentation performance during beer production. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2020;105:296–307.
  34. ↑ Evans DE, Goldsmith M, Dambergs R, Nischwitz R. A comprehensive revaluation of small-scale congress mash protocol parameters for determining extract and fermentability. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 2011;69(1):13–27.
  35. ↑ a b Langenaeken NA, De Schepper CF, De Schutter DP, Courtin CM. Different gelatinization characteristics of small and large barley starch granules impact their enzymatic hydrolysis and sugar production during mashing. Food Chem. 2019;295:138–146.
  36. ↑ a b Krottenthaler M, Back W, Zarnkow M. Wort production. In: Esslinger HM, ed. Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.
  37. ↑ Cvengroschová M, Šepel'ová G, Šmogrovičová D. Effect of mashing-in temperature on free amino nitrogen concentration and foam stability of beer. Monatsschrift Brauwiss. 2003;56(7/8):128–131.
  38. ↑ Visser MJ. Evaluation of malted barley with different degrees of fermentability using the Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA). University of Stellenbosch. 2011.
  39. ↑ Rübsam H, Gastl M, Becker T. Determination of the influence of starch sources and mashing procedures on the range of the molecular weight distribution of beer using field-flow fractionation. J Inst Brew. 2013;119(3):139–148.
  40. ↑ a b Jin YL, Speers RA, Paulson AT, Stewart RJ. Effects of β-glucans, shearing, and environmental factors on wort filtration performance. J Am Soc Brew Chem. 2004;62(4):155–162.
  41. ↑ Sacher B, Becker T, Narziss L. Some reflections on mashing – Part 2. Brauwelt International. 2016;6:392-397.
  42. ↑ Musings on mashing. The Modern Brewhouse website. 2019–2020.
  43. ↑ a b Whitting C. Milling your grain. Beer & Brewer. 2018. Accessed 2020.
  44. ↑ a b Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. Handbook of Brewing. 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.
  45. ↑ Miller D. Mills and milling. Brew Like A Pro website. 2012. Accessed 2020.
  46. ↑ Bamforth CW. Enzymic and non‐enzymic oxidation in the brewhouse: A theoretical consideration. J Inst Brew. 1999;105(4):237–242.
  47. ↑ a b c Biering J. Reliable scale up/scale down in process development—New possibilities to close the gap between lab, pilot brewery, and industrial scale. Slides presented at: Annual meeting of American Society of Brewing Chemists. June 4–7, 2017; Fort Myers, FL.
  48. ↑ a b Araki S, Kimura T, Shimizu C, Furusho S, Takashio M, Shinotsuka K. Estimation of antioxidative activity and its relationship to beer flavor stability. J Am Soc Brew Chem.] 1999;57(1):34–37.
  49. ↑ Frederiksen AM, Festersen RM, Andersen ML. Oxidative reactions during early stages of beer brewing studied by electron spin resonance and spin trapping. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56(18):8514–8520.
  50. ↑ Gordon R, Power A, Chapman J, Chandra S, Cozzolino D. A review on the source of lipids and their interactions during beer fermentation that affect beer quality. Fermentation. 2018;4(4):89.
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