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Water (also called brewing liquor) is a beer ingredient that is frequently underestimated. Besides H<sub>2</sub>O, water normally contains dissolved salts and dissolved oxygen gas, both of which influence every part of beer production and ultimately affect beer flavor and quality.<ref name=adb>Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. [[Library|''Abriss der Bierbrauerei.'']] 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.</ref><ref name=monmay/> Therefore, attention to the brewing water is necessary for making excellent beer, and small steps can lead to large improvements. Learning about "water chemistry" may seem complicated, but brewers should not be intimidated. Calculations are easily handled by modern brewing software, so just a little knowledge can go a long way.
Water (also called brewing liquor) is a beer ingredient that is frequently underestimated. Besides H<sub>2</sub>O, water normally contains dissolved salts and dissolved oxygen gas, both of which influence every part of beer production and ultimately affect beer flavor and quality.<ref name=adb>Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. [[Library|''Abriss der Bierbrauerei.'']] 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.</ref><ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref> Therefore, attention to the brewing water is necessary for making excellent beer, and small steps can lead to large improvements. Learning about "water chemistry" may seem complicated, but brewers should not be intimidated. Calculations are easily handled by modern brewing software, so just a little knowledge can go a long way.


All-grain brewers have a few goals with regard to water adjustment: The first is to establish a proper [[Brewing pH|mash pH]]. The second is to manipulate the salt levels to optimize flavor. We are a long way off from fully understanding the impact of water flavor ions on the palate of beer, so the guidelines for this second goal are a little nebulous.<ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref> A possible third goal (for [[low oxygen brewing]]) is to remove dissolved oxygen. Last but not least, brewers using municipal tap water must be remove the chlorine in order to avoid off-flavors. Besides these adjustments, brewers need to measure the correct volume(s) of water and heat it to the correct temperature in order to prepare it for [[mashing]].
All-grain brewers have a few goals with regard to water adjustment: The first is to establish a proper [[Brewing pH|mash pH]]. The second is to manipulate the salt levels to optimize flavor. We are a long way off from fully understanding the impact of water flavor ions on the palate of beer, so the guidelines for this second goal are a little nebulous.<ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref> A possible third goal (for [[low oxygen brewing]]) is to remove dissolved oxygen. Last but not least, brewers using municipal tap water must be remove the chlorine in order to avoid off-flavors. Besides these adjustments, brewers need to measure the correct volume(s) of water and heat it to the correct temperature in order to prepare it for [[mashing]].
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Water for [[extract brewing]] will be discussed separately. (?)
Water for [[extract brewing]] will be discussed separately. (?)


Summary:
== Sources of brewing water ==
* RO or tap water are the best sources of water for brewing.
Small-scale brewers have a few options when it comes to choosing the source of water as a beer ingredient. Reverse osmosis (RO) purified water or tap water are generally the best sources of water for brewing. RO water is the most flexible because it is free from minerals, and it's easy to produce with a [[RO systems|RO system]]. Tap water contains dissolved minerals, so it can be problematic to use for brewing a variety of beer styles, depending on the mineral levels. When using tap water, the brewer must obtain a [[water report]] in order to determine the levels of minerals present, and monitor for changes because they can shift over time. An additional water report is needed whenever a change is detected.
** RO water is the most flexible, and it's easy to produce.
** Tap water is usually fine. Get a water report and monitor for changes.
* Chlorine must be remove from municipal tap water.
* Remove dissolved oxygen to help avoid oxidation (low oxygen brewing)
* Calculate the correct strike water volume and temperature for the recipe.
* Adjust mineral levels and acid-base


== Sources of brewing water ==
Read the full guide: [[Water sources]]
Proper selection of the raw materials for brewing has a considerable impact on beer quality, and water is no exception. Brewers have options for sources of brewing water:


* '''Reverse Osmosis (RO) purified water''' - RO water contains little-to-no minerals (including chlorine and other unwanted chemicals).<ref name=kunze/> Therefore it is an excellent choice for brewing water because it allows the brewer to have full control over the mineral profile, offering maximum flexibility.<ref name=hob/><ref name=bmp5>Eumann M, Schaeberle C. Water. In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Brewing Materials and Processes: A Practical Approach to Beer Excellence.'']] Academic Press; 2016.</ref><ref name=mashing>Evans E. [[Library|''Mashing.'']] American Society of Brewing Chemists and Master Brewers Association of the Americas; 2021.</ref><ref name=lewsoft>Lewis A. [https://byo.com/mr-wizard/low-water-softeners-brewing/ The low down on water softeners for brewing.] Brew Your Own website. 2020. Accessed online 2024.</ref> RO water can either be purchased in reusable jugs, or produced on-site with a [[RO systems|RO purification system]]. This is great for any scale of brewery, from home brewing all the way up to macro level.<ref name=piper>Piper D, Jennings S, Zollo T. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZ6qwIStZO8 Pro-tips on lager decoction mashing, infusion mashing, yeast handling & sauergut (video).] YouTube. Published 2022. Accessed 2024.</ref> Whether you buy the water or produce it yourself, you should verify the purity with a [[TDS testing|TDS meter]] (e.g. RO systems in grocery stores are not always well-maintained).
== Remove chlorine ==
* '''Distilled or deionized (DI) water''' - Distilled and deionized water contain no minerals, and like RO water, they are very flexible options for brewing. However, unlike RO water, distilled water requires a lot of energy to produce, and typically cannot be readily produced on-site. Therefore it may not be an economical or practical option. Deionized water is basically RO water that has gone through an additional stage to remove any ions that got past the filter membrane; this is overkill for brewing since RO water generally contains a negligible amount of minerals without needing a DI stage. RO water is usually a better choice than DI or distilled water.
Municipal tap water is treated with [[Chlorine and chloramines|chlorine compounds]] for the purpose of disinfection. These chlorine compounds will react with [[phenolic compounds]] in the wort, causing the formation of harsh, Band-Aid<sup>&reg;</sup>-like off-flavors, which can be detectable in beer even in very small amounts. Therefore, the water needs to be dechlorinated before [[mashing]]. The easiest way to remove the chlorine is to add a small amount of [[sulfite]], which will neutralize chlorine and chloramines into harmless byproducts.
* '''Tap water''' - Tap water contains dissolved minerals, commonly around 100 to 400 mg/L, although some tap water sources can be 1000 mg/L or more.<ref name=bhfaq>[https://www.buckeyehydro.com/faq/ FAQ.] Buckeye Hydro website. Accessed October 2020.</ref> Brewers need to know the level of each individual dissolved mineral in order to use the water for producing quality beer.<ref name=bmp5/> To obtain this information, usually a sample of the water needs to be sent to a lab for analysis (see [[Water report]]), although sometimes a municipal water supplier provides the necessary information (termed Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels). Unfortunately, the mineral content of tap water can fluctuate between day and night, from year to year, and between seasons (especially surface water, e.g. from rivers or lakes).<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref><ref name=water>Palmer J, Kaminski C. [[Library|''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'']] Brewers Publications; 2013.</ref><ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref><ref name=bruwat>Brungard M. [https://www.brunwater.com/water-knowledge Water knowledge.] Bru’n Water website. 2020. Accessed online March 2024.</ref><ref>Leslie DL, Lyons WB. [https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/8/1752 Variations in dissolved nitrate, chloride, and sulfate in precipitation, reservoir, and tap waters, Columbus, Ohio.] ''Int J Environ Res Public Health.'' 2018;15(8):1752.</ref> If you live in an area where diverse sources of water are used to supply one supply zone, your water may vary greatly from one day to the next.<ref name=smart1/> [[TDS testing]] is very helpful for monitoring overall mineral levels. If there is a change in the water minerality, simple and inexpensive testing equipment for alkalinity and hardness and can be useful for adjusting your water treatment without needing another laboratory report.<ref name=smart1/> Tap water from a municipal water treatment facility also contains [[chlorine and chloramines|chlorine and/or chloramine]]s. These chlorine compounds must be removed from brewing liquor. If your home uses a "water softener", the water it produces is typically not suitable for brewing (brewers want [[calcium]], not a lot of [[sodium]]).<ref name=lewsoft/>
* '''Bottled spring water''' - This is basically the same as tap water. Companies extract water from multiple sites, each of which has different levels of minerals. All of the above information about tap water applies, i.e. spring water contains minerals, you will need at least one [[water report]], and [[TDS testing|test the TDS]] of every bottle to verify consistency. You'll need another water report if the TDS is substantially different, because that's a good sign the water came from somewhere else. There are also possible environmental and social concerns associated with the extraction of large volumes of ground water for bottling, and the excessive use of plastic.<ref>[https://www.riverkeeper.org/campaigns/tapwater/bottled-water/ Problems with bottled water.] Riverkeeper website. Accessed online March 2024.</ref> With all of these issues, bottled spring water is not a great option compared to RO water or tap water.
* '''Rain water''' - Rain water (or any other untreated surface water) contains contaminants and therefore it is not considered safe to drink without appropriate treatment, which is beyond the scope of this article.<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/private/rainwater-collection.html Rainwater collection.] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. Reviewed March 16, 2021. Accessed online March 2024.</ref> It is also ill-advised to use yellow snow for brewing.


Some brewers may wish to blend two water sources to achieve a more desirable mineral profile. For example, tap water can be blended with RO water to reduce the alkalinty, perhaps achieving a proper mash pH without needing to further adjust the water minerals or acid/base. Simple blending calculations apply. However, in most cases, it's easier to simply use RO water if you have access to it. We also do not condone blending blue pond water with yellow snow as a means to make green beer compliant with the Reinheitsgebot.
Read the full guide: [[Remove chlorine from tap water]]


== Remove chlorine from municipal tap water ==
== Remove dissolved oxygen ==
Municipal tap water is treated with [[Chlorine and chloramines|chlorine compounds]] for the purpose of disinfection. These chlorine compounds will react with [[phenolic compounds]] in the wort, causing the formation of harsh, Band-Aid<sup>&reg;</sup>-like off-flavors, which can be detectable in beer even in very small amounts. Therefore, the water needs to be dechlorinated before [[mashing]]. The easiest way to remove the chlorine is to add a small amount of [[sulfite]], which will neutralize chlorine and chloramines into harmless byproducts.
Water naturally contains dissolved oxygen gas (abbreviated DO), which is a major source of oxygen that can be introduced into the [[wort]] during [[mashing]]. The oxygen then "activates" and reacts with the malt components, a process called [[oxidation]]. Oxidation has a wide variety of negative effects on the brewing process and beer quality. To avoid these problems, the DO should be removed (through a process called deaeration) prior to mashing. This is part of a holistic [[low oxygen brewing]] method. For scall-scale brewers, water dearation is simple to accomplish with the help of the brewer's best friend: yeast!


Read more: [[Remove chlorine from tap water]]
Read the full guide: [[Remove dissolved oxygen from water]]


== Remove dissolved oxygen (deaeration) ==
== Adjust minerals and alkalinity ==
Water naturally contains dissolved oxygen gas (abbreviated DO), which is a major source of oxygen that can be introduced into the [[wort]] during [[mashing]]. The oxygen then is activated and reacts with the [[malt]] components, a process called [[oxidation]]. Oxidation has a wide variety of negative effects on the [[brewing]] process and [[beer]] quality. To avoid these problems, the dissolved oxygen should be removed (called deaeration) prior to mashing. For scall-scale brewers, this is simple to accomplish with the help of the brewer's best friend: [[yeast]]!
''Summary''


Read more: [[Remove dissolved oxygen from water]]
Read the full guide: [[Water mineral adjustment]]


== Water volume ==
== Water volume ==
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'''Volume added:'''
'''Volume added:'''
* Mash water - Water used during [[mashing]] includes the strike water and any water that is added by additional infusions (i.e. step mashing). Approximately 0.42–0.48 US gallons of water is needed for each pound of malt (3.5–4 L/kg).<ref name=kunze/>
* Mash water - Water used during [[mashing]] includes the strike water and any water that is added by additional infusions (i.e. step mashing). Approximately 0.42–0.48 US gallons of water is needed for each pound of malt (3.5–4 L/kg).<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019.</ref>
* Sparge water - If [[sparging]], the total required water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.<ref name=kunze/><ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref>
* Sparge water - If [[sparging]], the total required water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.<ref name=kunze/><ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref>
* Water for dilution or dissolution - Water can be used to dilute the wort or beer to achieve a lower [[specific gravity|s.g.]] or [[alcohol]] level. Water used to dissolve additives also counts toward volume.
* Water for dilution or dissolution - Water can be used to dilute the wort or beer to achieve a lower [[specific gravity|s.g.]] or [[alcohol]] level. Water used to dissolve additives also counts toward volume.
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*[https://www.brewersfriend.com/mash/ Brewer's Friend strike water calculator]
*[https://www.brewersfriend.com/mash/ Brewer's Friend strike water calculator]


== Adjusting water minerals and alkalinity ==
== Boiling point ==
Some ions have a direct effect on flavor: sodium, potassium, magnesium, hydrogen (pH), chloride, and sulfate. Ions can also affect other as aspects of beer quality, including fermentation, mash enzyme action, haze, and pH control.
The boiling point of water changes based on the atmospheric pressure, and therefore it is different at different elevations. Higher elevations have lower boiling point due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure.
 
The principal ions are the cations – calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium – and the anions – sulfate, nitrate, phosphate, chlorides, and silicate. The minor ions are iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. The level of toxic metals is limited by law. Cereals, water, hops, and adjuncts are the main sources of the minerals present in beer, while yeast, industrial processing and the containers contribute to a lesser extent.<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref>
 
The water profiles of different European cities has influences the development of beer styles suited to achieving the proper mash pH, long before brewers knew of such concepts.<ref name=monmay/>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Important ions in brewing water
! Ion !! &nbsp;Desired&nbsp;level&nbsp; !! Characteristics
|-
| [[Calcium]] (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) || 50 to 150 mg/L || Calcium improves mashing enzyme activity, beneficially lowers pH, improves protein coagulation, lowers oxalate, and improves yeast flocculation. Calcium does not provide flavor.
|-
| [[Magnesium]] (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) || 5 to 40 mg/L || Magnesium beneficially lowers pH, improves fermentation performance, increases hop utilization, and imparts a sour and bitter astringency to beer.
|-
| [[Sodium]] (Na<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 120 mg/L || Sodium improves mouthfeel and fullness, rounds out flavors, and accentuates the sweetness of malt.
|-
| [[Potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 200 mg/L || Potassium is required for fermentation, but the malt provides more than enough to support the yeast. Potassium does not provide flavor unless the level is excessive.
|-
| [[Chloride]] (Cl<sup>−</sup>) || 0 to 250 mg/L || Chloride provides a roundness, fullness, and a sweet quality to the malt character.
|-
| [[Sulfate]] (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) || 10 to 500 mg/L || Sulfate accentuates hop bitterness, and adds dryness and astringency, lending a more crisp finish.
|-
| [[Bicarbonate]] (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) || Variable, based on pH || Bicarbonate is ion responsible for alkalinity — it raises pH during mashing, etc. Bicarbonate does not provide flavor.
|-
| [[Iron]] (Fe), [[Copper]] (Cu), [[Manganese]] (Mn) || None || These [[transition metals]] catalyze [[oxidation]] and therefore their levels should be as low as possible.
|}
 
* [[Zinc]]
 
Most of the salts in beer originate from the [[barley]]. A 12°P beer will contribute about 1200mg/L of minerals.<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VBL Berlin; 2019.</ref> However, minerals in the water still have a significant impact on flavor.
 
Water pH, in and of itself, does not mean anything to brewers.<ref name=lewsoft/> The pH values that matter in wort production are mash pH (pH 5.2–5.4 is the ideal range), wort pH flowing from the mash tun (anything from pH 5.2–5.8 is great, and pH 6.0 for the last runnings is tolerable), and wort pH before the boil (I like pH 5.2–5.4, and nothing greater than pH 5.6). If you find that you need to acidify mash or wort, lactic acid or phosphoric acids are easy to use. You can also add calcium since it reacts with malt phosphates and amino acids to decrease mash and wort pH. And if you need to bump the pH up, baking soda is really the easiest thing to add. Don’t worry about the sodium since you are really not adding much at all.
 
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Ion contents in 10°P wort and beer with distilled water<ref name=water/>
! Ion
! Wort (mg/L)
! Beer (mg/L)
|-
|Na<sup>+</sup>||10||12
|-
|K<sup>+</sup>||380||355
|-
|Ca<sup>2+</sup>||35||33
|-
|Mg<sup>2+</sup>||70||65
|-
|Zn<sup>2+</sup>||0.17||0
|-
|Cu<sup>2+</sup>||0.15||0.12
|-
|Fe<sup>3+</sup>||0.11||0.07
|-
|Cl<sup>-</sup>||125||130
|-
|SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>||5||15
|-
|PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> (free)||550||389
|-
|PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> (total)||830||604
|}
 
Also see ''Brewing Science and Practice'' page 164 for another example of ionic content in beer.
 
Depending on the malts used, a standard 12°P gravity wort has levels of around 100-270 μg/L iron, 20-400 μg/L copper and 80-150 μg/L manganese with 100-5000 μg/L of the beneficial zinc. Calcium and magnesium - two other beneficial brewing metals found in wort - were not screened in our trials. Neither appear to substantially chelate out of solution (19) and they are also present in wort at concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than the detrimental iron, copper and manganese ions (namely, 50-90 mg/L for Mg and 15-35 mg/L for Ca) (31).<ref name=merkun>Mertens T, Kunz T, Wietstock PC, Methner FJ. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jib.673 Complexation of transition metals by chelators added during mashing and impact on beer stability.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2021;127(4):345–357.</ref>
 
Requirements for brew water<ref name=eumann>Eumann M, Schildbach S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2012;118:12–21.</ref>
Parameter Limits
Fe (ppm) <0.1
Mn (ppm) <0.05
Turbidity (NTU) 0.0–0.5
Ca2+ (ppm) 80/70–90
Mg2+ (ppm) 0–10
Na+ (ppm) 0–20
m-Alkalinity (ppm CaCO3) 25/10–50
Residual alkalinity according to Kolbach (ppm CaCO3) <0
Cl- (ppm) 0–50
SO4 2- (ppm) 30–150
NO3- (ppm) 0–25
NO2- (ppm) <0.1
KMnO4 (ppm O2 per L) <5
pH 5.0–9.5
SiO2 (ppm) 0–25
THMs (ppb) <10
Total H2S (ppb) <5
 
 
In beer most of the minerals originate from the barley. About 75% derives from the malt, while the remaining 25% originates from the water. The minerals include about 35% phosphates, about 25% silicates, and about 20% potassium salts.<ref name=monmay/>
 
Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb2+) and tin (Sn2+), can be inhibitory to certain yeast enzymes and can induce haze formation.2<ref name=hob/>
 
Sulfate-to-Cloride ratio<br>
The ratio of sulfate to chloride is said to greatly influence the hoppy-to-malty or dryness-to-fullness balance of the beer. However, the actually amounts of each ion clearly also still play a role.
The useful range of the ratio is 9 to 0.5, mainly for ales. Lagers tend to benefit from low levels of sulfate regardless of the ratio.<ref name=water/>
 
Comrie<ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref> (1967) suggests sulfate to chloride of 2:1 for pale ales and 2:3 for mild ales.
 
Many authors (e.g., see references 1, 19, 22, 23) refer to the importance of the chloride to sulfate balance. From the previous discussion regarding chloride and sulfate, it can be seen that the relative flavor effects of these ions are somewhat antagonistic. In an attempt to quantify this point, it has been shown16 that increasing the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio from 1:1 to 2:1 (on a mg/L basis) achieved increased taste panel scores for body and sweetness, with a commensurate reduction in drying, bitter, and metallic flavors. In contrast, when the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio was changed from 1:1 to 1:2, the increased sulfate content achieved reduced body and sweetness but increased bitterness and drying flavors. These effects are repeatable at different absolute concentrations of chloride and sulfate. It appears that, in many cases, it is the relative ratio of the two ions that has the major flavor influence, often irrespective of the accompanying cations.<ref name=hob/>
 
The key influence of chloride on beer flavor is somewhat antagonistic to sulfate, producing smoothness and body effects.<ref name=hob/>
 
The ratio of chloride to sulfate helps to regulate the saline/bitter character of beer.<ref name=bsp/>
 
The ratio between chloride and [[sulfate]] is thought to be important with regard to regulating the palatability of the beer.<ref name=smart1/>
 
Water profiles from famous/historical brewing regions are useless because brewers have been modifying their brewing water for centuries.<ref name=water/><ref name=fix/>
 
Inorganic ions are required in enzymic and structural roles. Enzymic functions include the
following:<ref name=hob/>
* As the catalytic center of an enzyme (e.g., Zn2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Co2+)
* As activators of enzyme activity (e.g., Mg2+)
* As metal co-enzymes (e.g., K+)
* As cofactors in redox pigments (e.g., Fe3+, Cu2+)
Structural roles involve neutralization of electrostatic forces present in various cellular anionic
molecules. These include:<ref name=hob/>
* K+ and Mg2+ ions bound to DNA, RNA, proteins, and polyphosphates
* Ca2+ and Mg2+ combined with the negatively charged structural membrane
phospholipids
* Ca2+ complexed with cell wall phosphate ions
 
Arguably, control of wort and beer pH is the single most important feature of the influence of inorganic ions on beer quality and flavor.<ref name=hob/>
 
Buy a pH meter. Test strips are for amateurs. If you are serious about brewing good beer, then you need to be serious about measuring your results and reaching your goals.
 
Bench trials for learning flavor effects?
 
An all-malt pale lager wort (12° P) should contain about 550 mg/1. potassium, 30 mg/1. sodium, 35 mg/1. calcium, 100 mg/1. magnesium, 0.10 mg/1. copper, 0.10 mg/1. iron, 0.15 mg/1. manganese, and 0.15 mg/1. zinc.<ref name=holpie>Holzmann A, Piendl A. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-35-0001 Malt modification and mashing conditions as factors influencing the minerals of wort.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 1977;35(1):1–8.</ref>
 
 
*https://www.brunwater.com/articles/a-better-way-to-store-and-use-calcium-chloride
 


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wikitable" style="width:350px"
|+ Water Boiling Point vs. Altitude
|+ Water Boiling Point vs. Altitude
|-
|-

Revision as of 22:27, 11 May 2024

This page is in progress
Please check back later for additional changes

Water (also called brewing liquor) is a beer ingredient that is frequently underestimated. Besides H2O, water normally contains dissolved salts and dissolved oxygen gas, both of which influence every part of beer production and ultimately affect beer flavor and quality.[1][2] Therefore, attention to the brewing water is necessary for making excellent beer, and small steps can lead to large improvements. Learning about "water chemistry" may seem complicated, but brewers should not be intimidated. Calculations are easily handled by modern brewing software, so just a little knowledge can go a long way.

All-grain brewers have a few goals with regard to water adjustment: The first is to establish a proper mash pH. The second is to manipulate the salt levels to optimize flavor. We are a long way off from fully understanding the impact of water flavor ions on the palate of beer, so the guidelines for this second goal are a little nebulous.[3] A possible third goal (for low oxygen brewing) is to remove dissolved oxygen. Last but not least, brewers using municipal tap water must be remove the chlorine in order to avoid off-flavors. Besides these adjustments, brewers need to measure the correct volume(s) of water and heat it to the correct temperature in order to prepare it for mashing.

Water for extract brewing will be discussed separately. (?)

Sources of brewing water

Small-scale brewers have a few options when it comes to choosing the source of water as a beer ingredient. Reverse osmosis (RO) purified water or tap water are generally the best sources of water for brewing. RO water is the most flexible because it is free from minerals, and it's easy to produce with a RO system. Tap water contains dissolved minerals, so it can be problematic to use for brewing a variety of beer styles, depending on the mineral levels. When using tap water, the brewer must obtain a water report in order to determine the levels of minerals present, and monitor for changes because they can shift over time. An additional water report is needed whenever a change is detected.

Read the full guide: Water sources

Remove chlorine

Municipal tap water is treated with chlorine compounds for the purpose of disinfection. These chlorine compounds will react with phenolic compounds in the wort, causing the formation of harsh, Band-Aid®-like off-flavors, which can be detectable in beer even in very small amounts. Therefore, the water needs to be dechlorinated before mashing. The easiest way to remove the chlorine is to add a small amount of sulfite, which will neutralize chlorine and chloramines into harmless byproducts.

Read the full guide: Remove chlorine from tap water

Remove dissolved oxygen

Water naturally contains dissolved oxygen gas (abbreviated DO), which is a major source of oxygen that can be introduced into the wort during mashing. The oxygen then "activates" and reacts with the malt components, a process called oxidation. Oxidation has a wide variety of negative effects on the brewing process and beer quality. To avoid these problems, the DO should be removed (through a process called deaeration) prior to mashing. This is part of a holistic low oxygen brewing method. For scall-scale brewers, water dearation is simple to accomplish with the help of the brewer's best friend: yeast!

Read the full guide: Remove dissolved oxygen from water

Adjust minerals and alkalinity

Summary

Read the full guide: Water mineral adjustment

Water volume

For small-scale all-grain brewing, it's a good idea to use recipe software to calculate the amount of water required for mashing (in order to obtain the desired quantity of beer at the end). Liquid is lost throughout the brewing process, which affects how much water is needed at the beginning. The volume of water required depends on the desired beer volume (batch size), the recipe, the brewing system, and the brewing methods. Because of this, it's beneficial to understand how each part of the brewing process affects the volume of beer. Taking volume measurements can help to accurately and consistently brew the desired amount of beer with minimal waste. When measuring volume while brewing, be aware that water expands when it is heated and contracts when it cools.

[Volume of packaged beer] = [Volume added] – [Volume lost]

Volume added:

  • Mash water - Water used during mashing includes the strike water and any water that is added by additional infusions (i.e. step mashing). Approximately 0.42–0.48 US gallons of water is needed for each pound of malt (3.5–4 L/kg).[4]
  • Sparge water - If sparging, the total required water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.[4][5]
  • Water for dilution or dissolution - Water can be used to dilute the wort or beer to achieve a lower s.g. or alcohol level. Water used to dissolve additives also counts toward volume.
  • Sauergut - Sour wort can be added during mashing or boiling to help control brewing pH and add flavor.
  • Yeast starter - The wort used for yeast starters adds to the total amount of wort.
  • Fruit juice - In fruit beer, the juice adds volume (the solids do not).
  • Priming sugar solution - Sugar for bottle (or keg) priming for natural carbonation is often first dissolved in water.

Volume lost:

  • Water left in the HLT - Water in the Hot Liquor Tank (HLT) may not fully drain into the the MLT. This should be fairly simple to measure.
  • Grain absorption - The spent grains are still wet after lautering, meaning some wort is lost. In order to find your grain absorption rate, you can weigh the spent grain after lautering to see how much the weight increased.
  • Wort left in the MLT - Wort in the Mash Lauter Tun (MLT) may not fully drain into the boil kettle.
  • Evaporation during heating, mashing, chilling - Evaporation from hot water or wort lowers volume.
  • Vaporization during boiling - Water is vaporized (turned to steam) during wort boiling (or pre-boiling for water deaeration).
  • Wort and trub left in the kettle (including hop absorption) - Trub is typically left behind in the boil kettle, whirlpool, or removed from the fermenter after settling.
  • Water or wort left in tubing, pumps, chiller, and any other equipment - Loss or water, wort, or beer can occur due to a variety of brewing equipment.
  • Sediment and beer left in the fermenter (and bottling bucket) - Not all of the beer is drained from the fermentation vessel.

Keep in mind that the volume of water used for mashing needs to physically fit within the mashing vessel, along with the grist plus thermal expansion of the water. Each pound of grain adds roughly 0.34 US qt of volume (700 mL per kg).[4]

Water temperature

The strike water must be heated to where it will reach the target mash temperature when combined with the grist in the mashing vessel. Both the grist and the mashing vessel will cool the water, so the strike water temperature must be somewhat higher than the target mash temperature. This calculation can be easily handled by software. However, some guesswork is involved with how much the mashing vessel will decrease the temperature. When first brewing on a new system, it's helpful to use a calibrated thermometer to see whether adjustments to strike water temperature are needed for subsequent batches. Generally, the target mash-in temperature should be that of the first rest.[4]

Boiling point

The boiling point of water changes based on the atmospheric pressure, and therefore it is different at different elevations. Higher elevations have lower boiling point due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure.

Water Boiling Point vs. Altitude
Altitude Boiling Point
(ft) (m) (°F) (°C)
-1000 -305 213.9 101.1
-500 -152 213.0 100.5
0 0 212.0 100.0
500 152 211.0 99.5
1000 305 210.1 98.9
1500 457 209.1 98.4
2000 610 208.1 97.8
2500 762 207.2 97.3
3000 914 206.2 96.8
3500 1067 205.3 96.3
4000 1219 204.3 95.7
4500 1372 203.4 95.2
5000 1524 202.4 94.7
5500 1676 201.5 94.2
6000 1829 200.6 93.6
6500 1981 199.6 93.1
7000 2134 198.7 92.6
7500 2286 197.8 92.1
8000 2438 196.9 91.6
8500 2591 196.0 91.1
9000 2743 195.0 90.6
9500 2896 194.1 90.1
10000 3048 193.2 89.6
10500 3200 192.3 89.1
11000 3353 191.4 88.6
11500 3505 190.5 88.1
12000 3658 189.7 87.6
12500 3810 188.8 87.1
13000 3962 187.9 86.6
13500 4115 187.0 86.1
14000 4267 186.1 85.6
14500 4420 185.3 85.1
15000 4572 184.4 84.7
15500 4724 183.5 84.2
16000 4877 182.7 83.7
16500 5029 181.8 83.2
17000 5182 180.9 82.7
17500 5334 180.1 82.3
18000 5486 179.2 81.8
18500 5639 178.4 81.3
19000 5791 177.6 80.9
19500 5944 176.7 80.4
20000 6096 175.9 79.9
20500 6248 175.1 79.5
21000 6401 174.2 79.0
21500 6553 173.4 78.6
22000 6706 172.6 78.1
22500 6858 171.8 77.7
23000 7010 171.0 77.2
23500 7163 170.2 76.8
24000 7315 169.4 76.3
24500 7468 168.6 75.9
25000 7620 167.8 75.4
25500 7772 167.0 75.0
26000 7925 166.2 74.5
26500 8077 165.4 74.1
27000 8230 164.6 73.7
27500 8382 163.8 73.2
28000 8534 163.1 72.8
28500 8687 162.3 72.4
29000 8839 161.5 72.0

See also


Potential sources

References

  1. ↑ Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. Abriss der Bierbrauerei. 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.
  2. ↑ Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. Chapter 34: Minerals in beer. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:359–365.
  3. ↑ Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. The Craft Brewing Handbook. Woodhead Publishing; 2019.
  4. ↑ a b c d Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. Technology Brewing & Malting. 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019.
  5. ↑ Fix G. Principles of Brewing Science. 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.
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