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Sulfate (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2–</sup>) is an ion naturally present in [[water]], and including any brewing salts added, it is the main source of sulfate in [[wort]]. In beer, sulfate ions add dryness, accentuate the bitterness of hops, and lend a crisp finish to the beer. The dryness/sweetness balance of the beer is likely affected by not just the concentration of sulfate, but also the ratio of the sulfate to [[chloride]] ions.<ref name=smart1/> Brewing literature suggests a wide range of maximum levels for sulfate in the brewing water, up to 500 ppm (mg/L).<ref name=water/><ref name=bsp/><ref name=esslinger>Krottenthaler M, Glas K. Brew water. In: Esslinger HM, ed. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets.'']] Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.</ref> This is likely because the desirable level of sulfate depends on the style of beer,<ref name=monmay/> the relative level of [[chloride]] ions present, and personal preference. Sulfate is absorbed to a limited extent by yeast cells during [[fermentation]], and can facilitate [[sulfite]] formation.<ref name=monmay/><ref name=eumbam>Eumann M. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9781845690038500095 Chapter 9: Water in brewing.] In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Brewing: New Technologies.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2006:183–207.</ref>
 
Sulfate (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2–</sup>) is an ion naturally present in [[water]].
 
Max level
*Maintain sulfate below 150ppm due to the dry bitterness.<ref name=esslinger>Krottenthaler M, Glas K. Brew water. In: Esslinger HM, ed. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets.'']] Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.</ref>
*the maximum should probably be 500 ppm.<ref name=water/>


Sulf<u>''ate''</u> should not be confused with [[sulfite|sulf<u>''ite''</u>]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulf<u>''ide''</u>]].
Sulf<u>''ate''</u> should not be confused with [[sulfite|sulf<u>''ite''</u>]] or [[hydrogen sulfide|sulf<u>''ide''</u>]].


'''Beer sulfate content:''' ?
'''Beer sulfate content:''' The level of sulfate in commercial beer is typically around 150 to 200 mg/L, although it can range to over 400 mg/L based on variability in the water and the brewer's preference.<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019:711.</ref><ref>Buiatti S. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000201 Chapter 20: Beer Composition: An Overview.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:213–225.</ref>


== Potential sources of sulfate ==
== Potential sources of sulfate ==
The sulfate content in beer comes from the raw ingredients, mainly the water, plus any salts added by the brewer.
The sulfate content in beer comes from the raw ingredients, mainly the water, plus any salts added by the brewer.
* '''Brewing water''' -  
* '''Brewing water''' - Sulfate levels in tap water can range up to 600 mg/L, although most fresh water contains less than 100 mg/L.<ref>Platikanov S, Hernández A, González S, Cortina JL, Tauler R, Devesa R. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0039914016307275 Predicting consumer preferences for mineral composition of bottled and tap water.] ''Talanta.'' 2017;162:1–9.</ref><ref name=burdie>Burlingame GA, Dietrich AM, Whelton AJ. [https://awwa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2007.tb07930.x Understanding the basics of tap water taste.] ''J Am Water Works Assoc.'' 2007;99(5):100–111.</ref>
* '''Grain''' -  
* '''Grain''' - A very small amount of sulfate is extracted from the [[malt]] during [[mashing]], around 5 mg/L.<ref name=water/>
* '''Salt additives''' -  
* '''Salt additives''' - Brewers often add sulfate salts to modify the flavor balance of the beer, depending on the style of beer and personal preference. [[Calcium sulfate]] and [[magnesium sulfate]] are commonly used for this purpose. If [[sulfite]] is used during [[mashing]] (i.e. [[low oxygen brewing]]), it will oxidize, adding a small amount of sulfate to the beer.


== Effects of sulfate ==
== Effects of sulfate ==
* '''Flavor''' - In relatively moderate amounts (200-400 ppm), sulfate ion has a dry and bitter effect on the palate.<ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref><ref name=water>Palmer, J. and Kaminski, C. ''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'' Brewers Publications, 2013.</ref><ref>Eumann, M. and Schildbach, S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 "125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary Review: Water sources and treatment in brewing."] ''J. Inst. Brew.'', 2012, vol. 118, pp. 12-21.</ref> This effect can be used to accentuates hop bitterness, making the bitterness seem drier and more crisp.<ref name=water/> At higher levels, the resulting bitterness can become astringent and unpleasant.<ref name=water/> Many Czech and German lager brewers avoid sulfates entirely, because they find that it ruins the soft noble hop character of Pils and Helles style beers.<ref name=water/>
* '''Flavor''' - In relatively moderate amounts (200-400 ppm), sulfate ion has a dry and bitter effect on the palate.<ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref><ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref><ref name=water>Palmer J, Kaminski C. [[Library|''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'']] Brewers Publications; 2013.</ref><ref name=eumann>Eumann M, Schildbach S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2012;118:12–21.</ref><ref name=bsp/><ref name=eumbam/> This effect can be used to accentuates hop bitterness, making the bitterness seem drier and more crisp.<ref name=water/> At higher levels, the resulting bitterness can become harsh, astringent, and unpleasant.<ref name=water/> [[Chloride]] ion can be used to help balance the dryness of sulfate.<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref><ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref><ref name=monmay/> Many Czech and German lager brewers avoid sulfates entirely, because they find that it ruins the soft noble hop character of Pils and Helles style beers.<ref name=water/> High sulfate levels may also be undesirable in dark beers.<ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref> Lastly, sulfate is more likely to impart an unpleasant harshness when combined with higher levels of [[sodium]]. Therefore, the more sulfate there is in the water, the less sodium there should be (and vice versa).<ref name=monmay/>
* '''Improved starch and protein degradation''' - Sulfates positively affect protein and starch degradation, which favors mash filtration and trub sedimentation.<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref>
* '''Decreased hop utilization''' - If the sulfate levels are too high, it may result in poor hop utilization (bitterness will not easily be extracted).<ref name=monmay/>


== How to adjust the sulfate level ==
== How to adjust the sulfate level ==
Brewers may wish to add sulfate to the brewing water in the form of [[calcium sulfate]] or [[magnesium sulfate]], depending on whether calcium or magnesium are desired. Sulfate is also a product of the [[sulfite|metabisulfite salts]] used for [[low oxygen brewing]].
Brewers may wish to add sulfate to the brewing water in the form of [[calcium sulfate]] or [[magnesium sulfate]], depending on whether calcium or magnesium are desired. Sulfate is also a product of the [[sulfite|metabisulfite salts]] used for [[low oxygen brewing]]. See [[Water]] for our guide to adjusting water minerals and mash pH.


High sulfate levels and dark beers are "not particularly a good marriage". The effects are a drying and astringent finish.<ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref>
If the sulfate level in your water is too high, purification by [[RO systems|reverse osmosis filtration]] is a good option to remove practically all sulfate ions and other minerals so that the water mineral profile can be built from scratch.


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Water]] - Expert guide to adjusting water minerals
* [[Water]] - Expert guide to adjusting water minerals
 
* [[Calcium sulfate]] - Brewing salt
 
* [[Magnesium sulfate]] - Brewing salt
 
 
----
 
 
Sulphate ions (SO4 2-, m. wt. 96.07); sulphate is the major counter ion to calcium and magnesium ions in permanently hard water. The ion contributes a drier, more bitter flavour to beers that should be balanced by appropriate amounts of chloride ions.<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref> Acceptable sulphate concentrations are in the range 10–250 mg/litre.
 
Ions of SO4 2− impart dryness/astringency to beer and also increase the bitterness palate and after-palate, even at constant iso-humulone levels.1,16,18,19 Again, these effects become more pronounced as the concentration increases from 200 to 400 mg/L.<ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref>
 
Sulfate is generally held as the dryness ion. In the UK, sulfate is the ion favored in ales whereas chloride is favored in lagers. It is thought to enhance hop bitterness and provide a dryer finish. Some believe sulfate acts in tandem with chloride and the dryness/sweetness balance of the beer is affected by the ratio of the two ions. <ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref>
 
Sulfates positively affect protein and starch degradation, which favors mash filtration and trub sedimentation. However, if the levels are too high, it may result in poor hop utilization (bitterness will not easily be extracted). Sulfates can lend a dry, crisp palate to the finished beer, but if used in excess, the finished beer will have a harsh, salty, and laxative character. The composition of the beer type or beer brand plays an important role in the taste threshold value (TTV). The TTV of CaSO 4 in a German lager is 430.5 mg/l, while in wheat beer it is 114.04 mg/l ( Schoenberger et al., 2002). Sulfate is absorbed by yeast cells during fermentation (Kunze, 2004 ).<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref>
 
Having sulphate ions in the brew water is of no disadvantage. It is even reported that elevated levels of sulphate can facilitate sulphite formation. Sulphite acts as an oxygen scavenger and thus increases the ageing potential of a beer. A pronounced bitterness is associated with higher sulphate contents in the beer.<ref name=eumbam>Eumann M. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9781845690038500095 Chapter 9: Water in brewing.] In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Brewing: New Technologies.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2006:183–207.</ref>


== References ==
== References ==
[[category:brewing chemistry]]
[[category:brewing chemistry]]
{{#seo:
|title=Sulfate in brewing water, the dryness and bitterness ion
|description=Sulfate ions, natually found in brewing water and added with brewing salts, become part of the mineral profile of beer. In beer, sulfate ions help to accentuate the hop bitterness, and impart dryness, astringency, and lend a crisp finish. The recommended level of sulfate in brewing water is 0 to 500 ppm (mg/L), and higher levels can cause a salty taste or harsh bitterness.
}}

Latest revision as of 15:40, 7 May 2024

Sulfate (SO42–) is an ion naturally present in water, and including any brewing salts added, it is the main source of sulfate in wort. In beer, sulfate ions add dryness, accentuate the bitterness of hops, and lend a crisp finish to the beer. The dryness/sweetness balance of the beer is likely affected by not just the concentration of sulfate, but also the ratio of the sulfate to chloride ions.[1] Brewing literature suggests a wide range of maximum levels for sulfate in the brewing water, up to 500 ppm (mg/L).[2][3][4] This is likely because the desirable level of sulfate depends on the style of beer,[5] the relative level of chloride ions present, and personal preference. Sulfate is absorbed to a limited extent by yeast cells during fermentation, and can facilitate sulfite formation.[5][6]

Sulfate should not be confused with sulfite or sulfide.

Beer sulfate content: The level of sulfate in commercial beer is typically around 150 to 200 mg/L, although it can range to over 400 mg/L based on variability in the water and the brewer's preference.[7][8]

Potential sources of sulfate[edit]

The sulfate content in beer comes from the raw ingredients, mainly the water, plus any salts added by the brewer.

  • Brewing water - Sulfate levels in tap water can range up to 600 mg/L, although most fresh water contains less than 100 mg/L.[9][10]
  • Grain - A very small amount of sulfate is extracted from the malt during mashing, around 5 mg/L.[2]
  • Salt additives - Brewers often add sulfate salts to modify the flavor balance of the beer, depending on the style of beer and personal preference. Calcium sulfate and magnesium sulfate are commonly used for this purpose. If sulfite is used during mashing (i.e. low oxygen brewing), it will oxidize, adding a small amount of sulfate to the beer.

Effects of sulfate[edit]

  • Flavor - In relatively moderate amounts (200-400 ppm), sulfate ion has a dry and bitter effect on the palate.[11][12][2][13][3][6] This effect can be used to accentuates hop bitterness, making the bitterness seem drier and more crisp.[2] At higher levels, the resulting bitterness can become harsh, astringent, and unpleasant.[2] Chloride ion can be used to help balance the dryness of sulfate.[3][1][5] Many Czech and German lager brewers avoid sulfates entirely, because they find that it ruins the soft noble hop character of Pils and Helles style beers.[2] High sulfate levels may also be undesirable in dark beers.[14] Lastly, sulfate is more likely to impart an unpleasant harshness when combined with higher levels of sodium. Therefore, the more sulfate there is in the water, the less sodium there should be (and vice versa).[5]
  • Improved starch and protein degradation - Sulfates positively affect protein and starch degradation, which favors mash filtration and trub sedimentation.[5]
  • Decreased hop utilization - If the sulfate levels are too high, it may result in poor hop utilization (bitterness will not easily be extracted).[5]

How to adjust the sulfate level[edit]

Brewers may wish to add sulfate to the brewing water in the form of calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate, depending on whether calcium or magnesium are desired. Sulfate is also a product of the metabisulfite salts used for low oxygen brewing. See Water for our guide to adjusting water minerals and mash pH.

If the sulfate level in your water is too high, purification by reverse osmosis filtration is a good option to remove practically all sulfate ions and other minerals so that the water mineral profile can be built from scratch.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ a b Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. The Craft Brewing Handbook. Woodhead Publishing; 2019.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f Palmer J, Kaminski C. Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers. Brewers Publications; 2013.
  3. ↑ a b c Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. Brewing Science and Practice. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.
  4. ↑ Krottenthaler M, Glas K. Brew water. In: Esslinger HM, ed. Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2009.
  5. ↑ a b c d e f Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. Chapter 34: Minerals in beer. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:359–365.
  6. ↑ a b Eumann M. Chapter 9: Water in brewing. In: Bamforth CW, ed. Brewing: New Technologies. Woodhead Publishing; 2006:183–207.
  7. ↑ Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. Technology Brewing & Malting. 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019:711.
  8. ↑ Buiatti S. Chapter 20: Beer Composition: An Overview. In: Preedy VR, ed. Beer in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press; 2009:213–225.
  9. ↑ Platikanov S, Hernández A, González S, Cortina JL, Tauler R, Devesa R. Predicting consumer preferences for mineral composition of bottled and tap water. Talanta. 2017;162:1–9.
  10. ↑ Burlingame GA, Dietrich AM, Whelton AJ. Understanding the basics of tap water taste. J Am Water Works Assoc. 2007;99(5):100–111.
  11. ↑ Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. Handbook of Brewing. 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.
  12. ↑ Comrie AA. Brewing liquor—a review. J Inst Brew. 1967;73(4):335–346.
  13. ↑ Eumann M, Schildbach S. 125th Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing. J Inst Brew. 2012;118:12–21.
  14. ↑ Fix G. Principles of Brewing Science. 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.
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