|
|
| (38 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{in progress}} | | {{in progress}} |
|
| |
|
| Water (also called brewing liquor) is a beer ingredient that is frequently underestimated. Besides H<sub>2</sub>O, water normally contains dissolved salts and dissolved oxygen gas, both of which influence every part of beer production and ultimately affect beer flavor and quality.<ref name=adb>Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. [[Library|''Abriss der Bierbrauerei.'']] 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.</ref><ref name=monmay/> Therefore, attention to the brewing water is necessary for making excellent beer, and small steps can lead to large improvements. Learning about "water chemistry" may seem complicated, but brewers should not be intimidated. Calculations are easily handled by modern brewing software, so just a little knowledge can go a long way. | | Water (also called brewing liquor) is a beer ingredient that is frequently underestimated. Besides H<sub>2</sub>O, water normally contains dissolved salts and dissolved oxygen gas, both of which influence every part of beer production and ultimately affect beer flavor and quality.<ref name=adb>Narziss L, Back W, Gastl M, Zarnkow M. [[Library|''Abriss der Bierbrauerei.'']] 8th ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2017.</ref><ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref> Therefore, attention to the brewing water is necessary for making excellent beer, and small steps can lead to large improvements. Learning about "water chemistry" may seem complicated, but brewers should not be intimidated. Calculations are easily handled by modern brewing software, so just a little knowledge can go a long way. |
|
| |
|
| All-grain brewers have a few goals with regard to water adjustment: The first is to establish a proper [[Brewing pH|mash pH]]. The second is to manipulate the salt levels to optimize flavor. We are a long way off from fully understanding the impact of water flavor ions on the palate of beer, so the guidelines for this second goal are a little nebulous.<ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref> A possible third goal (for [[low oxygen brewing]]) is to remove dissolved oxygen. Last but not least, brewers using municipal tap water must be remove the chlorine in order to avoid off-flavors. Besides these adjustments, brewers need to measure the correct volume(s) of water and heat it to the correct temperature in order to prepare it for [[mashing]]. | | All-grain brewers have a few goals with regard to water adjustment: The first is to establish a proper [[Brewing pH|mash pH]]. The second is to manipulate the salt levels to optimize flavor. We are a long way off from fully understanding the impact of water flavor ions on the palate of beer, so the guidelines for this second goal are a little nebulous.<ref name=smart1>Howe S. Raw materials. In: Smart C, ed. [[Library|''The Craft Brewing Handbook.'']] Woodhead Publishing; 2019.</ref> A possible third goal (for [[low oxygen brewing]]) is to remove dissolved oxygen. Last but not least, brewers using municipal tap water must be remove the chlorine in order to avoid off-flavors. Besides these adjustments, brewers need to measure the correct volume(s) of water and heat it to the correct temperature in order to prepare it for [[mashing]]. |
|
| |
|
| Water for [[extract brewing]] will be discussed separately. (?) | | Water for [[extract brewing]] will be discussed separately. (?) |
|
| |
| Summary:
| |
| * RO or tap water are the best sources of water for brewing.
| |
| ** RO water is the most flexible, and it's easy to produce.
| |
| ** Tap water is usually fine. Get a water report and monitor for changes.
| |
| * Chlorine must be remove from municipal tap water.
| |
| * Remove dissolved oxygen to help avoid oxidation (low oxygen brewing)
| |
| * Calculate the correct strike water volume and temperature for the recipe.
| |
| * Adjust mineral levels and acid-base
| |
|
| |
|
| == Sources of brewing water == | | == Sources of brewing water == |
| Proper selection of the raw materials for brewing has a considerable impact on beer quality, and water is no exception. Brewers have options for sources of brewing water:
| | Small-scale brewers have a few options when it comes to choosing the source of water as a beer ingredient. Reverse osmosis (RO) purified water or tap water are generally the best sources of water for brewing. RO water is the most flexible because it is free from minerals, and it's easy to produce with a [[RO systems|RO system]]. Tap water contains dissolved minerals, so it can be problematic to use for brewing a variety of beer styles, depending on the mineral levels. When using tap water, the brewer must obtain a [[water report]] in order to determine the levels of minerals present, and monitor for changes because they can shift over time. An additional water report is needed whenever a change is detected. |
| | |
| * '''Reverse Osmosis (RO) purified water''' - RO water contains little-to-no minerals (including chlorine and other unwanted chemicals).<ref name=kunze/> Therefore it is an excellent choice for brewing water because it allows the brewer to have full control over the mineral profile, offering maximum flexibility.<ref name=hob/><ref name=bmp5>Eumann M, Schaeberle C. Water. In: Bamforth CW, ed. [[Library|''Brewing Materials and Processes: A Practical Approach to Beer Excellence.'']] Academic Press; 2016.</ref><ref name=mashing>Evans E. [[Library|''Mashing.'']] American Society of Brewing Chemists and Master Brewers Association of the Americas; 2021.</ref><ref name=lewsoft>Lewis A. [https://byo.com/mr-wizard/low-water-softeners-brewing/ The low down on water softeners for brewing.] Brew Your Own website. 2020. Accessed online 2024.</ref> RO water can either be purchased in reusable jugs, or produced on-site with a [[RO systems|RO purification system]]. This is great for any scale of brewery, from home brewing all the way up to macro level.<ref name=piper>Piper D, Jennings S, Zollo T. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZ6qwIStZO8 Pro-tips on lager decoction mashing, infusion mashing, yeast handling & sauergut (video).] YouTube. Published 2022. Accessed 2024.</ref> Whether you buy the water or produce it yourself, you should verify the purity with a [[TDS testing|TDS meter]] (e.g. RO systems in grocery stores are not always well-maintained).
| |
| * '''Distilled or deionized (DI) water''' - Distilled and deionized water contain no minerals, and like RO water, they are very flexible options for brewing. However, unlike RO water, distilled water requires a lot of energy to produce, and typically cannot be readily produced on-site. Therefore it may not be an economical or practical option. Deionized water is basically RO water that has gone through an additional stage to remove any ions that got past the filter membrane; this is overkill for brewing since RO water generally contains a negligible amount of minerals without needing a DI stage. RO water is usually a better choice than DI or distilled water.
| |
| * '''Tap water''' - Tap water contains dissolved minerals, commonly around 100 to 400 mg/L, although some tap water sources can be 1000 mg/L or more.<ref name=bhfaq>[https://www.buckeyehydro.com/faq/ FAQ.] Buckeye Hydro website. Accessed October 2020.</ref> Brewers need to know the level of each individual dissolved mineral in order to use the water for producing quality beer.<ref name=bmp5/> To obtain this information, usually a sample of the water needs to be sent to a lab for analysis (see [[Water report]]), although sometimes a municipal water supplier provides the necessary information (termed Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels). Unfortunately, the mineral content of tap water can fluctuate between day and night, from year to year, and between seasons (especially surface water, e.g. from rivers or lakes).<ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref><ref name=water>Palmer J, Kaminski C. [[Library|''Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers.'']] Brewers Publications; 2013.</ref><ref name=hob>Taylor DG. Water. In: Stewart GG, Russell I, Anstruther A, eds. [[Library|''Handbook of Brewing.'']] 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2017.</ref><ref name=bruwat/> If you live in an area where diverse sources of water are used to supply one supply zone, your water may vary greatly from one day to the next.<ref name=smart1/> [[TDS testing]] is very helpful for monitoring overall mineral levels. If there is a change in the water minerality, simple and inexpensive testing equipment for alkalinity and hardness and can be useful for adjusting your water treatment without needing another laboratory report.<ref name=smart1/> Tap water from a municipal water treatment facility also contains [[chlorine and chloramines|chlorine and/or chloramine]]s. These chlorine compounds must be removed from brewing liquor. If your home uses a "water softener", the water it produces is typically not suitable for brewing (brewers want [[calcium]], not a lot of [[sodium]]).<ref name=lewsoft/>
| |
| * '''Bottled spring water''' - This is basically the same as tap water. Companies extract water from multiple sites, each of which has different levels of minerals. All of the above information about tap water applies, i.e. spring water contains minerals, you will need at least one [[water report]], and [[TDS testing|test the TDS]] of every bottle to verify consistency. You'll need another water report if the TDS is substantially different, because that's a good sign the water came from somewhere else. There are also possible environmental and social concerns associated with the extraction of large volumes of ground water for bottling, and the excessive use of plastic.<ref>[https://www.riverkeeper.org/campaigns/tapwater/bottled-water/ Problems with bottled water.] Riverkeeper website. Accessed online March 2024.</ref> With all of these issues, bottled spring water is not a great option compared to RO water or tap water.
| |
| * '''Rain water''' - Rain water (or any other untreated surface water) contains contaminants and therefore it is not considered safe to drink without appropriate treatment, which is beyond the scope of this article.<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/private/rainwater-collection.html Rainwater collection.] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. Reviewed March 16, 2021. Accessed online March 2024.</ref> It is also ill-advised to use yellow snow for brewing.
| |
| | |
| Some brewers may wish to blend two water sources to achieve a more desirable mineral profile. For example, tap water can be blended with RO water to reduce the alkalinty, perhaps achieving a proper mash pH without needing to further adjust the water minerals or acid/base. Simple blending calculations apply. However, in most cases, it's easier to simply use RO water if you have access to it. We also do not condone blending blue pond water with yellow snow as a means to make green beer compliant with the Reinheitsgebot.
| |
| | |
| == Chlorine removal ==
| |
| Municipal water is treated with [[Chlorine and chloramines|chlorine compounds]] (either chlorine or chloramines) at the treatment plant in order to make sure the water is protected from hazardous bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.<ref name=karguh>Karim K, Guha S, Beni R. [https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=102266 Comparative Analysis of chemical, physical and biological contaminants in drinking water in various developed countries around the world.] ''J Water Resour Prot.'' 2020;12(8):714–728.</ref><ref name=filmtec>[https://www.dupont.com/content/dam/dupont/amer/us/en/water-solutions/public/documents/en/45-D01504-en.pdf FilmTec™ reverse osmosis membranes technical manual.] Dupont website. Updated April 2020. Accessed October 2020.</ref> Even if the water is not initially treated with chloramines, they are formed from chlorine as a product of the disinfection process.<ref name=ndsu>Scherer T, Johnson R. [https://www.ndsu.edu/agriculture/extension/publications/filtration-sediment-activated-carbon-and-mixed-media Filtration: Sediment activated carbon and mixed media.] North Dakota State University website. Revised Feb 2022. Accessed online Mar 2024.</ref> Water treatment plants may also switch between using chlorine or chloramine without warning.<ref name=water/><ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/public/water_disinfection.html Water disinfection with chlorine and chloramine.] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. Last reviewed 2020. Accessed online March 2024.</ref> So, generally speaking, tap water may contain chlorine and/or chloramines.<ref name=fresh>Robinson B. [https://www.freshwatersystems.com/blogs/blog/how-to-remove-chloramines-from-water How to remove chloramines from water.] Fresh Water Systems website. 2020. Accessed online March 2024.</ref> The residual chlorine level in tap water can vary by location and over time, but it is generally below 4 mg/L Cl<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=karguh/><ref>Brandt MJ, Johnson KM, Elphinston AJ, Ratnayaka DD. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780081000250000119 Chapter 11: Disinfection of Water.] In: Brandt MJ, Johnson KM, Elphinston AJ, Ratnayaka DD, eds. ''Twort's Water Supply.'' 7th ed. Butterworth-Heinemann; 2017:475–511.</ref><ref name=iarc>IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK506911/ Chlorinated drinking-water; chlorination by-products; some other halogenated compounds; cobalt and cobalt compounds.] International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1991. Accessed March 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/programs/districts/docs/sonoma/cont_chl_maint.pdf Continuous chlorination disinfection system: Operation, maintenance & monitoring guidance for small water systems.] California Water Boards. 2018. Accessed online March 2024.</ref><ref name=bruwat>Brungard M. [https://www.brunwater.com/water-knowledge Water knowledge.] Bru’n Water website. 2020. Accessed online March 2024.</ref>
| |
| | |
| Why is chlorine a problem for brewing? Given the opportunity, the chlorine compounds in tap water will react with [[phenolic compounds]] in the wort, resulting in the formation of off-flavors (chlorophenols).<ref name=hob/><ref name=kunze/><ref name=bsp/><ref name=water/><ref name=eumann>Eumann M, Schildbach S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.18 125<sup>th</sup> Anniversary review: Water sources and treatment in brewing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2012;118:12–21.</ref><ref name=smart1/><ref name=adb/><ref>Horák T, Čulík J, Kellner V, Jurková M, Čejka P. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jiri_Culik/publication/235897785_Determination_of_chlorinated_phenols_in_brewing_liquor_and_beer_using_SPE/links/00b49515427f3a603f000000.pdf Determination of chlorinated phenols in brewing liquor and beer using SPE.] ''Kvasny Prumysl'' (Czech Republic). 2008;54(1).</ref><ref name=iarc/> These flavors are harsh, medicinal, fishy, pond-like, plastic-like, or Band-Aid-like, and are detectable at very low concentration.<ref name=hob/><ref name=delrem/><ref name=water/><ref name=eumann/><ref name=fix/><ref name=adb/> Therefore, it is recommended to remove chlorine compounds from the water before brewing.<ref name=hob/><ref name=kunze/><ref name=bruwat/> Interestingly, some people are extremely sensitive to sensing chlorophenols, while others are virtually "taste-blind" to them.<ref name=hob/><ref name=bruwat/> Be aware that chloramines are more difficult to remove than chlorine by some methods because they are less volatile and less reactive.<ref name=fresh/><ref name=water/><ref>[https://www.lenntech.com/processes/disinfection/chemical/disinfectants-chloramines.htm Disinfectants chloramines.] Lenntech website. Accessed March 2024.</ref>
| |
| | |
| It may be wise to verify that the chosen method for chlorine/chlorine removal has been successful.<ref name=delrem/> Inexpensive test kits for free chlorine and total chlorine are available from aquarium stores or laboratory suppliers.<ref name=water/> Free chlorine tests detect only chlorine, while total chlorine tests also detect chloramines.<ref name=water/> Liquid test kits are preferred rather than test strips since they tend to be more sensitive at low concentrations.<ref name=bruwat/>
| |
| | |
| === Sulfite for chlorine removal ===
| |
| Both chlorine and chloramines can be neutralized using a small amount of [[sulfite]] (from sodium metabisulfite or potassium metabisulfite).<ref name=bsp/><ref name=delrem>deLange AJ. [https://www.morebeer.com/articles/removing_chloramines_from_water Removing chloramines from water: Chloramines removal.] MoreBeer website. 2013.</ref><ref name=filmtec/><ref name=bruwat/> "Campden tablets" are convenient for this purpose, since the dosage doesn't need to be exact.<ref name=delcam>deLange AJ. [https://www.homebrewtalk.com/forum/threads/campden-tablets-sulfites-and-brewing-water.361073/ Campden tablets (sulfites) and brewing water.] Homebrew Talk website. 2012. Accessed March 2024.</ref> Alternately, metabisulfite powder can be used, if you have an appropriate [[scale]] for measuring small amounts. It is customary to add more sulfite than is theoretically needed, to be certain that 100% of the chlorine is neutralized.<ref name=filmtec/><ref name=delcam/> Add the sulfite after heating the water to strike temperature. The reaction occurs instantly, although stirring is required to ensure good mixing.<ref name=delrem/><ref name=filmtec/> Any residual sulfite is oxidized to form [[sulfate]] during the brewing process — the sulfate and other ion contributions can generally be ignored since they are so small.<ref name=delrem/><ref name=bruwat/> Here is our calculator for determining the amount of sulfite recommended based on your sulfite product and water characteristics. It rounds up to the nearest half tablet.
| |
| {| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wikitable" style="width:100%;margin-top: 3px;"
| |
| ! style="text-align:left;" | Sulfite dosing calculator
| |
| |-
| |
| |
| |
| {{#Widget:Removechlorinewithsulfite}}
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| === Carbon filtration for chlorine removal ===
| |
| Running the water through an activated carbon filter is a good way to remove chlorine and many other organic contaminants.<ref name=hob/><ref name=water/><ref name=bmp5/><ref name=bsp/><ref name=smart1/><ref name=mashing/><ref name=adb/><ref name=filmtec/><ref name=bruwat/> A special ''catalytic'' carbon filter can be used for water that contains chloramines, because chloramines are not as easily removed by a typical carbon filter.<ref name=fresh/><ref name=ndsu/><ref name=bruwat/> In any case, a '''slow flow rate''' through the filter is critical to improving contaminant removal and extending the filter life.<ref name=water/><ref name=bmp5/><ref name=bruwat/> The filter manufacturer may provide a recommended flow rate, or in some cases you can calculate it based on the the filter bed volume: Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT) is the parameter for activated carbon systems.<ref name=water/> EBCT = volume of the carbon filter ÷ flow rate. EBCT should be at least 2–3 minutes for chlorine and at least 8 minutes for chloramine.<ref name=water/><ref name=bmp5/><ref name=bruwat/>
| |
| | |
| The flow rate through a standard under-sink (10-inch) activated carbon filter unit should be no greater than 1 gallon per minute to achieve good hypochlorite removal. Inserting a restrictor plate in the filter's water supply line with a 1/16-inch diameter hole should help achieve this. Smaller filters need slower flow.<ref name=bruwat/>
| |
| | |
| === Other methods (not recommended) ===
| |
| Chlorine is very volatile and therefore it can be partially removed by exposure to air or heating.<ref name=water/><ref name=bsp/><ref name=bruwat/> This means that simply heating the water to strike temperature in an open kettle will drive off most of the free chlorine. However, it only takes very small amounts of free chlorine in brewing water to produce discernable chlorophenols in beer.<ref name=water/> Also, chloramines are significantly less volatile and cannot be removed in this manner.<ref name=water/><ref name=delrem/> Therefore, it's not recommended for brewers to rely solely on heating or aeration for chlorine removal.
| |
| | |
| [[Ascorbic acid]], like sulfite, can neutralize both chlorine and chloramines. However, we do not recommend using ascorbic acid to neutralize chlorine, because it has several drawback compared to sulfite.<ref name=bruwat/> Ascorbic acid costs more, it lowers the water pH, and the reaction with chlorine leaves behind dehydroascorbic acid, a reactive compound that will contribute to [[oxidation]] during mashing.<ref name=delcam/>
| |
| | |
| == Dissolved oxygen removal (deaeration) ==
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right;margin-top:0px;margin-left:20px;"
| |
| |+ Oxygen solubility in water
| |
| |
| |
| * 9.2 mg/L at 68°F (20°C)
| |
| * 6.5 mg/L at 104°F (40°C)
| |
| * 4.7 mg/L at 140°F (60°C)
| |
| * 2.8 mg/L at 176°F (80°C)
| |
| * 0.2 mg/L at 210°F (99°C)
| |
| |}
| |
| Water naturally contains dissolved oxygen gas (abbreviated DO), and the amount can vary depending on the temperature, pressure, and other factors. Dissolved oxygen in the brewing water is a major source of oxygen during traditional [[mashing]], where it totally overwhelmes the natural [[antioxidants]] in the [[malt]].<ref name=chache>Chapon L, Chemardin M. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00960845.1964.12006766?journalCode=ujbc19& The dissolving and oxidation of malt tannoids on mashing-in.] Proceedings from the Annual meeting of American Society of Brewing Chemists. 1964;22(1):244–258.</ref> In order to avoid damage to the mash components by [[oxidation]], it's critical to remove the DO from the water before mash-in, a process called ''deaeration''.<ref name=kunze/><ref name=adb/><ref name=ditfil>Ditrych M, Filipowska W, De Rouck G, et al. [https://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/BrewingScience_ditrych_10-17_2019.pdf Investigating the evolution of free staling aldehydes throughout the wort production process.] ''BrewingScience.'' 2019;72(Jan/Feb):10–17.</ref><ref name=hob/><ref name=kanbam>Kanauchi M, Bamforth CW. [https://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/BrewingScience_bamforth_82-84.pdf A Challenge in the study of flavour instability.] ''BrewingScience - Monatsschrift Brauwiss.'' 2018;71(Sept/Oct):82–84.</ref><ref name=mullerr>Muller R. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-53-0053 Use of 5,5’-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) as a measure of oxidation during mashing.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 1995;53(2):53–58.</ref> It's recommended to reduce the DO content of strike water to below 0.1 mg/L.<ref name=kunze/> There are a couple different methods to accomplish this task, including options for any size of brewery.<ref>[https://www.probrewer.com/production/ingredients/water/four-of-the-best-ways-to-deaerate-your-brewing-water-depending-on-your-budget/ Four of the best ways to deaerate your brewing water, depending on your budget.] ProBrewer website. 2021. Accessed online April 2024.</ref><ref>Dorton JK. [https://www.academia.edu/6928942/Producing_deaerated_water_methods_design_considerations_and_operational_implications Producing deaerated water: Methods, design considerations and operational implications.] Slides presented at: Master Brewers Association of the Americas. Austin, Texas. October 2013. Accessed online April 2024.</ref> Be aware that water deaeration is just part of a [[low oxygen brewing]] method — other steps must also be taken throughout the [[brewing]] process in order to successfully avoid oxidation.
| |
|
| |
|
| === Yeast for deaeration ===
| | Read the full guide: [[Water sources]] |
| [[Yeast]] cells rapidly consume dissolved oxygen,<ref name=niecon>Nielsen H. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1973.tb03517.x The control of oxygen in beer processing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1973;79(2):147–154.</ref> which means that water can be deaerated in only 20–30 minutes just by adding some yeast and sugar; no advanced equipment is needed.<ref name=Rabe-deox>Rabe B. [http://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/brewing-methods/deoxygenation-revisited/ Deoxygenation revisited.] The Modern Brewhouse website. 2020.</ref><ref name=german-yos>[http://forum.germanbrewing.net/viewtopic.php?f=50&t=355 Alternate methods for oxygen scavenging mash water.] German Brewing website. 2016.</ref> This is referred to as Yeast Oxygen Scavenging (YOS) among home brewers. Since the yeast cannot survive at standard [[mashing|mash-in]] temperatures, deaeration must be completed prior to heating the water to strike temperature. At 100°F (38°C), the yeast will rehydrate and deaerate the fastest, although yeast deaeration can be conducted at room temperature in a similar timeframe by using double the amounts of yeast and sugar. Thanks to the yeast, the water will actually remain deaerated for a few days, so it can be prepared overnight to save time on brew day. Although not necessary, a [[DO meter]] can be useful to verify that the water is deaerated before heating to strike temperature. This deaeration method appears not to have any negative effects on the wort or beer, as long as the as water is heated to a recommended strike temperature.<ref>[http://www.themodernbrewhouse.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=18&t=1069 Choosing a malt mill.] The Modern Brewhouse website. 2019. Accessed online April 2024.</ref> Interestingly, yeast has a direct antioxidant effect, even after cell death.<ref>Comuzzo P, Toniolo R, Battistutta F, Lizee M, Svigelj R, Zironi R. [https://air.uniud.it/bitstream/11390/1120321/5/Submitted.pdf Oxidative behavior of (+)‐catechin in the presence of inactive dry yeasts: a comparison with sulfur dioxide, ascorbic acid and glutathione.] ''J Sci Food Agric.'' 2017;97(15):5158–5167.</ref><ref>Comuzzo P, Battistutta F, Vendrame M, Páez MS, Luisi G, Zironi R. [https://air.uniud.it/bitstream/11390/1084294/5/FOODCHEM-S-14-01878.pdf Antioxidant properties of different products and additives in white wine.] ''Food chem.'' 2015;168:107–114.</ref> Therefore, the benefit of yeast in the strike water might even extend beyond simply removing DO.
| |
|
| |
|
| Recommended procedure:
| | == Remove chlorine == |
| # Bring the water to around 100°F (38°C) and remove from the heat.
| | Municipal tap water is treated with [[Chlorine and chloramines|chlorine compounds]] for the purpose of disinfection. These chlorine compounds will react with [[phenolic compounds]] in the wort, causing the formation of harsh, Band-Aid<sup>®</sup>-like off-flavors, which can be detectable in beer even in very small amounts. Therefore, the water needs to be dechlorinated before [[mashing]]. The easiest way to remove the chlorine is to add a small amount of [[sulfite]], which will neutralize chlorine and chloramines into harmless byproducts. |
| # For each US gallon, add 1 gram of active dry yeast and 1 gram of sugar (0.25 g/L of each). Dextrose (corn sugar) is the preferred sugar.
| |
| # Allow the yeast to rehydrate for around 5 minutes, and then stir gently.
| |
| # Add a cap to the water and wait at least 25 minutes.
| |
|
| |
|
| <gallery mode="packed">
| | Read the full guide: [[Remove chlorine from tap water]] |
| File:YOS-ingredients.png|Measure the yeast and sugar
| |
| File:YOS-adding-yeast.png|Add them to the water
| |
| </gallery>
| |
| <!-- YOS video from Integrity Brewing {{#ev:youtube|P9PrxEjvNQE}} -->
| |
|
| |
|
| === Boiling for deaeration === | | == Remove dissolved oxygen == |
| Oxygen has very low solubility in boiling water.<ref name=german-yos/><ref>[https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-solubility-water-d_639.html Solubility of air in water.] The Engineering ToolBox website. 2004. Accessed online April 2024.</ref> This means that boiling the strike water is a simple means to deaerate it before mash-in, although perhaps not the most effective.<ref>Butler IB, Schoonen MA, Rickard DT. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23433550_Removal_of_Dissolved_Oxygen_from_Water_A_Comparison_of_Four_Common_Techniques Removal of dissolved oxygen from water: A comparison of four common techniques.] ''Talanta.'' 1994;41(2):211–215.</ref><ref name=german-yos/><ref name=Rabe-deox/><ref name=bsp>Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R. [[Library|''Brewing Science and Practice.'']] Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2004.</ref><ref name=stephenson>Stephenson WH, Biawa JP, Miracle RE, Bamforth CW. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2003.tb00168.x Laboratory-scale studies of the impact of oxygen on mashing.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2003;109(3):273–283.</ref> This method requires high energy usage.
| | Water naturally contains dissolved oxygen gas (abbreviated DO), which is a major source of oxygen that can be introduced into the [[wort]] during [[mashing]]. The oxygen then "activates" and reacts with the malt components, a process called [[oxidation]]. Oxidation has a wide variety of negative effects on the brewing process and beer quality. To avoid these problems, the DO should be removed (through a process called deaeration) prior to mashing. This is part of a holistic [[low oxygen brewing]] method. For scall-scale brewers, water dearation is simple to accomplish with the help of the brewer's best friend: yeast! |
|
| |
|
| Procedure:
| | Read the full guide: [[Remove dissolved oxygen from water]] |
| # Bring the water to a rolling boil for 10–15 minutes.
| |
| # Apply a cap to prevent oxygen from diffusing back into the water from the air.
| |
| # '''Rapidly''' chill to strike temperature and then proceed to mash-in as soon as possible.
| |
|
| |
|
| === Other deaeration methods === | | == Adjust minerals and alkalinity == |
| [[Sulfite]] (e.g. a metabisulfite product) can be used for deaeration since it reacts with dissolved oxygen.<ref>Rodgers SJ. [https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4156105 The reaction rate of sodium sulfite with dissolved oxygen.] Technical Report No. 73. MSA Research Corp., Callery, PA.; 1960.</ref><ref>Zupanovich JD. [https://www.awt.org/pub/0149322F-0C20-5CEC-AE62-1E826AF61A4C Oxidation and degradation products of common oxygen scavengers.] ''The Analyst.'' 2002(Fall):1–8.</ref><ref name=bsp/><ref>[https://www.getchemready.com/water-facts/how-to-remove-oxygen-from-boiler-feed-water/ How to remove oxygen from boiler feed water.] ChemREADY website. 2023. Accessed online April 2024.</ref> However, this method is not preferred because the large amount of sulfite require to remove DO has a significant effect on the water mineral profile by adding substantial amounts of [[sulfate]] and either [[sodium]] or [[potassium]].
| | ''Summary'' |
|
| |
|
| Larger scale breweries can essentially deaerate water on demand by using advanced equipment like a dearation column or a membrane system. In a column system for example, hot water flows down through a pipe while either nitrogen or carbon dioxide gas bubbles up through it, stripping the DO, as per Henry's law.
| | Read the full guide: [[Water mineral adjustment]] |
|
| |
|
| == Water volume == | | == Water volume == |
| Line 99: |
Line 33: |
|
| |
|
| '''Volume added:''' | | '''Volume added:''' |
| * Mash water - Water used during [[mashing]] includes the strike water and any water that is added by additional infusions (i.e. step mashing). Approximately 0.42–0.48 US gallons of water is needed for each pound of malt (3.5–4 L/kg).<ref name=kunze/> | | * Mash water - Water used during [[mashing]] includes the strike water and any water that is added by additional infusions (i.e. step mashing). Approximately 0.42–0.48 US gallons of water is needed for each pound of malt (3.5–4 L/kg).<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VLB Berlin; 2019.</ref> |
| * Sparge water - If [[sparging]], the total required water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.<ref name=kunze/><ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref> | | * Sparge water - If [[sparging]], the total required water should be evenly split between the mash and sparge.<ref name=kunze/><ref name=fix>Fix G. [[Library|''Principles of Brewing Science.'']] 2nd ed. Brewers Publications; 1999.</ref> |
| * Water for dilution or dissolution - Water can be used to dilute the wort or beer to achieve a lower [[specific gravity|s.g.]] or [[alcohol]] level. Water used to dissolve additives also counts toward volume. | | * Water for dilution or dissolution - Water can be used to dilute the wort or beer to achieve a lower [[specific gravity|s.g.]] or [[alcohol]] level. Water used to dissolve additives also counts toward volume. |
| Line 124: |
Line 58: |
| *[https://www.brewersfriend.com/mash/ Brewer's Friend strike water calculator] | | *[https://www.brewersfriend.com/mash/ Brewer's Friend strike water calculator] |
|
| |
|
| == Adjusting water minerals and alkalinity == | | == Boiling point == |
| Some ions have a direct effect on flavor: sodium, potassium, magnesium, hydrogen (pH), chloride, and sulfate. Ions can also affect other as aspects of beer quality, including fermentation, mash enzyme action, haze, and pH control.
| | The boiling point of water changes based on the atmospheric pressure, and therefore it is different at different elevations. Higher elevations have lower boiling point due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure. |
| | |
| The principal ions are the cations – calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium – and the anions – sulfate, nitrate, phosphate, chlorides, and silicate. The minor ions are iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. The level of toxic metals is limited by law. Cereals, water, hops, and adjuncts are the main sources of the minerals present in beer, while yeast, industrial processing and the containers contribute to a lesser extent.<ref name=monmay>Montanari L, Mayer H, Marconi O, Fantozzi P. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123738912000341 Chapter 34: Minerals in beer.] In: Preedy VR, ed. [[Library|''Beer in Health and Disease Prevention.'']] Academic Press; 2009:359–365.</ref> | |
| | |
| The water profiles of different European cities has influences the development of beer styles suited to achieving the proper mash pH, long before brewers knew of such concepts.<ref name=monmay/>
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Important ions in brewing water
| |
| ! Ion !! Desired level !! Characteristics
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Calcium]] (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) || 50 to 150 mg/L || Calcium improves mashing enzyme activity, beneficially lowers pH, improves protein coagulation, lowers oxalate, and improves yeast flocculation. Calcium does not provide flavor.
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Magnesium]] (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) || 5 to 40 mg/L || Magnesium beneficially lowers pH, improves fermentation performance, increases hop utilization, and imparts a sour and bitter astringency to beer.
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Sodium]] (Na<sup>+</sup>) || 0 to 120 mg/L || Sodium improves mouthfeel and fullness, rounds out flavors, and accentuates the sweetness of malt.
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>) || ||
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Chloride]] (Cl<sup>−</sup>) || ||
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Sulfate]] (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) || ||
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Bicarbonate]] (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) || ||
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Iron]] (Fe), [[Copper]] (Cu), [[Manganese]] (Mn) || None || These [[transition metals]] catalyze [[oxidation]] and therefore their levels should be as low as possible.
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| * [[Zinc]]
| |
| | |
| Most of the salts in beer originate from the [[barley]]. A 12°P beer will contribute about 1200mg/L of minerals.<ref name=kunze>Kunze W. Hendel O, ed. [[Library|''Technology Brewing & Malting.'']] 6th ed. VBL Berlin; 2019.</ref> However, minerals in the water still have a significant impact on flavor.
| |
| | |
| Water pH, in and of itself, does not mean anything to brewers.<ref name=lewsoft/> The pH values that matter in wort production are mash pH (pH 5.2–5.4 is the ideal range), wort pH flowing from the mash tun (anything from pH 5.2–5.8 is great, and pH 6.0 for the last runnings is tolerable), and wort pH before the boil (I like pH 5.2–5.4, and nothing greater than pH 5.6). If you find that you need to acidify mash or wort, lactic acid or phosphoric acids are easy to use. You can also add calcium since it reacts with malt phosphates and amino acids to decrease mash and wort pH. And if you need to bump the pH up, baking soda is really the easiest thing to add. Don’t worry about the sodium since you are really not adding much at all.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |+ Ion contents in 10°P wort and beer with distilled water
| |
| ! Ion
| |
| ! Wort (mg/L)
| |
| ! Beer (mg/L)
| |
| |-
| |
| |Na<sup>+</sup>||10||12
| |
| |-
| |
| |K<sup>+</sup>||380||355
| |
| |-
| |
| |Ca<sup>2+</sup>||35||33
| |
| |-
| |
| |Mg<sup>2+</sup>||70||65
| |
| |-
| |
| |Zn<sup>2+</sup>||0.17||0
| |
| |-
| |
| |Cu<sup>2+</sup>||0.15||0.12
| |
| |-
| |
| |Fe<sup>3+</sup>||0.11||0.07
| |
| |-
| |
| |Cl<sup>-</sup>||125||130
| |
| |-
| |
| |SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>||5||15
| |
| |-
| |
| |PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> (free)||550||389
| |
| |-
| |
| |PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> (total)||830||604
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Also see ''Brewing Science and Practice'' page 164 for another example of ionic content in beer.
| |
| | |
| Depending on the malts used, a standard 12°P gravity wort has levels of around 100-270 μg/L iron, 20-400 μg/L copper and 80-150 μg/L manganese with 100-5000 μg/L of the beneficial zinc. Calcium and magnesium - two other beneficial brewing metals found in wort - were not screened in our trials. Neither appear to substantially chelate out of solution (19) and they are also present in wort at concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than the detrimental iron, copper and manganese ions (namely, 50-90 mg/L for Mg and 15-35 mg/L for Ca) (31).<ref name=merkun>Mertens T, Kunz T, Wietstock PC, Methner FJ. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jib.673 Complexation of transition metals by chelators added during mashing and impact on beer stability.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 2021;127(4):345–357.</ref>
| |
| | |
| Requirements for brew water<ref name=eumann/>
| |
| Parameter Limits
| |
| Fe (ppm) <0.1
| |
| Mn (ppm) <0.05
| |
| Turbidity (NTU) 0.0–0.5
| |
| Ca2+ (ppm) 80/70–90
| |
| Mg2+ (ppm) 0–10
| |
| Na+ (ppm) 0–20
| |
| m-Alkalinity (ppm CaCO3) 25/10–50
| |
| Residual alkalinity according to Kolbach (ppm CaCO3) <0
| |
| Cl- (ppm) 0–50
| |
| SO4 2- (ppm) 30–150
| |
| NO3- (ppm) 0–25
| |
| NO2- (ppm) <0.1
| |
| KMnO4 (ppm O2 per L) <5
| |
| pH 5.0–9.5
| |
| SiO2 (ppm) 0–25
| |
| THMs (ppb) <10
| |
| Total H2S (ppb) <5
| |
| | |
| | |
| In beer most of the minerals originate from the barley. About 75% derives from the malt, while the remaining 25% originates from the water. The minerals include about 35% phosphates, about 25% silicates, and about 20% potassium salts.<ref name=monmay/>
| |
| | |
| Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb2+) and tin (Sn2+), can be inhibitory to certain yeast enzymes and can induce haze formation.2<ref name=hob/>
| |
| | |
| Sulfate-to-Cloride ratio<br>
| |
| The ratio of sulfate to chloride is said to greatly influence the hoppy-to-malty or dryness-to-fullness balance of the beer. However, the actually amounts of each ion clearly also still play a role.
| |
| The useful range of the ratio is 9 to 0.5, mainly for ales. Lagers tend to benefit from low levels of sulfate regardless of the ratio.<ref name=water/>
| |
| | |
| Comrie<ref name=comrie>Comrie AA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1967.tb03050.x Brewing liquor—a review.] ''J Inst Brew.'' 1967;73(4):335–346.</ref> (1967) suggests sulfate to chloride of 2:1 for pale ales and 2:3 for mild ales.
| |
| | |
| Many authors (e.g., see references 1, 19, 22, 23) refer to the importance of the chloride to sulfate balance. From the previous discussion regarding chloride and sulfate, it can be seen that the relative flavor effects of these ions are somewhat antagonistic. In an attempt to quantify this point, it has been shown16 that increasing the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio from 1:1 to 2:1 (on a mg/L basis) achieved increased taste panel scores for body and sweetness, with a commensurate reduction in drying, bitter, and metallic flavors. In contrast, when the Cl− : SO4 2− ratio was changed from 1:1 to 1:2, the increased sulfate content achieved reduced body and sweetness but increased bitterness and drying flavors. These effects are repeatable at different absolute concentrations of chloride and sulfate. It appears that, in many cases, it is the relative ratio of the two ions that has the major flavor influence, often irrespective of the accompanying cations.<ref name=hob/>
| |
| | |
| Water profiles from famous/historical brewing regions are useless because brewers have been modifying their brewing water for centuries.<ref name=water/><ref name=fix/>
| |
| | |
| Inorganic ions are required in enzymic and structural roles. Enzymic functions include the
| |
| following:<ref name=hob/>
| |
| * As the catalytic center of an enzyme (e.g., Zn2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Co2+)
| |
| * As activators of enzyme activity (e.g., Mg2+)
| |
| * As metal co-enzymes (e.g., K+)
| |
| * As cofactors in redox pigments (e.g., Fe3+, Cu2+)
| |
| Structural roles involve neutralization of electrostatic forces present in various cellular anionic
| |
| molecules. These include:<ref name=hob/>
| |
| * K+ and Mg2+ ions bound to DNA, RNA, proteins, and polyphosphates
| |
| * Ca2+ and Mg2+ combined with the negatively charged structural membrane
| |
| phospholipids
| |
| * Ca2+ complexed with cell wall phosphate ions
| |
| | |
| Arguably, control of wort and beer pH is the single most important feature of the influence of inorganic ions on beer quality and flavor.<ref name=hob/>
| |
| | |
| Buy a pH meter. Test strips are for amateurs. If you are serious about brewing good beer, then you need to be serious about measuring your results and reaching your goals.
| |
| | |
| Bench trials for learning flavor effects?
| |
| | |
| An all-malt pale lager wort (12° P) should contain about 550 mg/1. potassium, 30 mg/1. sodium, 35 mg/1. calcium, 100 mg/1. magnesium, 0.10 mg/1. copper, 0.10 mg/1. iron, 0.15 mg/1. manganese, and 0.15 mg/1. zinc.<ref name=holpie>Holzmann A, Piendl A. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-35-0001 Malt modification and mashing conditions as factors influencing the minerals of wort.] ''J Am Soc Brew Chem.'' 1977;35(1):1–8.</ref>
| |
| | |
| | |
| *https://www.brunwater.com/articles/a-better-way-to-store-and-use-calcium-chloride
| |
| | |
| ==Water added after fermentation==
| |
| Dilution water is similar to brew water, as it also results in the
| |
| product, but in contrast to brew water, special attention has to
| |
| be paid regarding a low Ca2+ level. Any increase in the Ca2+
| |
| level in the filtered beer will affect the Ca-oxalate equilibrium,
| |
| increasing the risk of the formation of Ca-oxalate crystals, which can finally lead to an unwanted increase in beer gushing
| |
| tendency. As the major amount of the Ca2+ from the brew water is utilized during the course of the production process (in mashing, lautering, cooking and fermentation), the Ca2+ level
| |
| in the dilution water should be low, at least below the level in
| |
| the beer being diluted. The risk of Ca-oxalate precipitation can
| |
| be assessed based on the calcium and oxalate concentration.
| |
| Schur et al. (12) proposed a corresponding formula including
| |
| recommendations of target ranges.
| |
| The dilution water must also be deaerated in order to avoid
| |
| beer oxidation. The common target value for deaeration plants
| |
| nowadays is <10 ppb dissolved oxygen. As dilution water goes
| |
| directly into the final product without any further treatment
| |
| steps, THMs must be reduced even further, compared with brew
| |
| water, with a target of <1 ppb.<ref name=eumann/>
| |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" | | {| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wikitable" style="width:350px" |
| |+ Water Boiling Point vs. Altitude | | |+ Water Boiling Point vs. Altitude |
| |- | | |- |
| Line 401: |
Line 193: |
|
| |
|
| ==See also== | | ==See also== |
| | * [[Remove chlorine from tap water]] |
| | * [[Remove dissolved oxygen from water]] |
| * [[Brewing pH]] | | * [[Brewing pH]] |
| * [[Mashing]] | | * [[Mashing]] |
| * [[Chlorine and chloramines]]
| |
| * [[Recipe software]] | | * [[Recipe software]] |
|
| |
|
| Line 429: |
Line 222: |
| *[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0043135401003414 Methods for preparing synthetic freshwaters] | | *[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0043135401003414 Methods for preparing synthetic freshwaters] |
|
| |
|
| ==References== | | == References == |
| | [[category:brewing ingredients]][[category:wort production]] |
